Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Teaching & Education

Branches of Linguistics

General Versus Descriptive Linguistics

1. General Linguistics: Supplies the concepts and categories in terms of which particular languages (L1, L2, L3, etc.) are analyzed.
2. Descriptive Linguistics: Provides the data (i.e., given specific or broad aspects of L1, L2, L3, etc.) that confirm or refute the hypotheses, statements, or theories proposed by general linguists.

On the whole, General and Descriptive Linguistics are interdependent, complementary subfields within linguistics as a scientific study, i.e., as an empirical scientific study or discipline within the human (i.e., social) sciences.

Theoretical Versus Applied Linguistics

1. Theoretical Linguistics

   Studies language and languages with a view to constructing a theory of their

Strategies and techniques of communication

The transmission of thoughts to someone else may be through multiple channels (verbal, written, gestures, drawing, etc.). Meetings, conferences (courses, training), and short messages are very clear to foster good communication. Consider the following recommendations:

1. Briefly explain the point to be addressed.
2. Avoid using some topics, and if used, keep it brief.
3. Be mindful of the public when talking.
4. Pay attention to body language.
5. Utilize short sentences and understandable vocabulary.
6. Use audiovisuals whenever possible.
7. Accept comments, avoid confrontations, and be as objective as possible.
8. Use anecdotes and examples to illustrate the topic.
9. Finish with a summary and brief explanation of the findings.

Communication

Understanding Socialized Speech in Children

Socialized speech refers to a child's ability to perform effective communication with a partner. It utilizes various forms:

Adapted Information

• Seeks to communicate the child's thoughts, telling the listener something that might interest them and influence their behavior, which can lead to exchange, discussion, or collaboration.
• The information is directed to a particular partner, who may not be interchangeable with just anyone. If the speaker does not understand, the child insists until they are understood.

Criticism and Ridicule

These are comments about the work or behavior of others, specifically concerning a partner. They are designed to assert the superiority of the self and denigrate others. Their... Continue reading "Understanding Socialized Speech in Child Development" »

Vocabulary

English - Spanish

• Option: Opción
• College: Instituto CFT
• Qualification: Calificación
• Higher: Superior
• Job: Trabajo (como sustantivo)
• Invaluable: Muy valioso
• Further: Más
• Prospective: Futuro
• Field: Gran extensión de algo
• Staff: Personal/Grupo de personas
• Several: Muchos
• Loans: Préstamo
• Debt: Deuda
• Enable: Permitir
• Current: Actual
• Advisors: Asesores
• Fed-up: Agotado
• Undertaken: Emprender
• Make up your mind: Decidirse
• Relationship: Relación
• Between: Entre
• Employment: Empleo
• Degree: Grado académico
• Part/Full time: Tiempo completo/Tiempo medio
• Employer: Empleador
• Applying for: Buscar trabajo
• Technical Training Centers: Centro de Formación Técnica
• Learning: Aprendiendo
• Can and May: Poder
• Anyone; Any age: Alguien de cualquier edad
• Something: Algo
• Needed: Requerido
• Skills:

Criticism is the activity displayed by the reader to identify the strengths, weaknesses, and inconsistencies of a text in order to accept, reject, or suggest modifications.

Criticism fosters progress, achievement, and advances knowledge of the truth.

Steps to Critique a Reading:

1. Synthesize information from different texts and/or experts on the subject.
2. Engage in critical discussion.
3. Accept, reject, or modify the reading's content.
4. Put the reading into practice with prior planning.
5. Enrich the reading by observing and recording the results of practice.

• Critical reading is a technique for discovering ideas and information within a written text.
• Critical thinking is a technique for evaluating information and ideas to decide what to accept and believe.

FORMAL E-MAIL:

• GREETINGS: (Dear Sir/ Madam);(To whom it may concern); Dear Mr/Ms...)
• INTRODUCTION: (my name is... and I am writing with regard to...); (I would like...)
• BODY: (I would really appreciate if you could...)
• CONCLUSION: (thank you for your help);( I look forward to hearing from you); (please feel free if you have any question)
• DESPEDIDA: (Yours sincerely, yours cordially);(Respectfully)

INFORMAL E-MAIL:

• OPENING SALUTATION: (Hi ...,)
• BODY: (How are you? hope you are well.); (thanks for your e-mail, it was great to hear from you) (sorry for not writing earlier)
• INTRODUCE THE TOPIC: (I'm writing to thank you for...);(Listen, did I tell you about...); (I was wondering if you could help me.)
• CLOSING LINE: (well, that's all for now); (hope to hear

Accounting in Ancient Civilizations

The earliest civilizations that arose on earth had to find a way to record certain facts with arithmetic projection, which occurred too often and too complex to be retained by the memory.

Mesopotamia

The famous Code of Hammurabi, promulgated about the year 1700 AD, contained criminal law, civilian and commercial standards. It regulated contracts such as loans, sales, leases, fees, deposits, and other forms of civil and commercial matters.

Egypt

If accounting was important among the peoples of Mesopotamia, it was even more necessary in a society as rigidly centralized as pharaonic Egypt.

Greece

The Hellenic temples, as had happened many centuries before in Mesopotamia and Egypt, were the first places in ancient Greece... Continue reading "Accounting History: From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Profession" »

Understanding Text Organization

A text is an organized linguistic unit (words, phrases, sentences, periods, paragraphs, full text) structured according to the communicative situation, register of language, and communicative intentionality.

Sentence-Period

A sentence-period is a set of sentences linked by a period, covering the same subject.

Message vs. Text

The message is what is said, while the text is the organized form of what is said.

Communicative Environment

The communicative environment surrounds the issuance of a text and a message. Key questions include: "Who speaks?" and "To whom do they speak?"

Intention to Communicate

This refers to what we want to achieve with our message, such as reporting, ordering, inviting, seeking, or requesting.

The... Continue reading "Understanding Text Organization, Communication, and Language" »

Indefinite Determiners and Pronouns

Indefinite determiners and pronouns allude to concepts such as quantity but in a generally vague and indeterminate manner. They are opposed to numerals, which indicate exact amounts.

Indefinite determiners are incompatible with non-count nouns in the plural unless referring to classes, properties, etc.

Common Indefinite Terms

• un/una (a, an)
• alguno/a/os/as (some, any)
• ninguno/a/os/as (no, none, not any)
• cualquier/a, cualesquiera (whatever, whichever)
• quienquiera, quienesquiera (whoever)
• demás (other, rest)
• otro/a/os/as (other, another)
• vario/a/os/as (various, several)
• mucho/a/os/as (much, many)
• poco/a/os/as (little, few)
• cierto/a/os/as (certain)
• más (more)
• menos (less, fewer)
• bastante/es (enough, quite a lot)
• todo/a/os/as

Types of Conjunctions in Spanish

Coordinate Conjunctions

These connect elements of equal grammatical rank.

• Juxtaposed: I came, I saw, I conquered
• Coordinated (P1 - P2)
• Copulative: (y, e) Example: John studied and Anna works
• Adversative: (pero, mas, sin embargo) Example: We played well but lost
• Disjunctive: (o, u) Example: Either you come or stay
• Distributional: (ya...ya, bien...bien, unos...otros) Example: Some are playing, others do the task

Subordinate Conjunctions

These connect a subordinate clause to a main clause.

Substantive Conjunctions

These act as a noun phrase.

• Substitute for nouns or pronouns
• The conjunction acts as a link
• Subject: Example: I am concerned that I should study hard.
• (CD) Example: Andrew thinks that Carlos was right.
• (CN) Example: We