Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Understanding Linguistic Variation

Diatopic (Geographical) Varieties

These relate the speaker to their territorial origin. A distinction exists between language, dialect, and local speech:

• Language: A system characterized by significant linguistic differentiation, often serving as an important vehicle for literary tradition. Sometimes, one language system has been imposed over others of the same origin.
• Dialect: A system of signs derived from a common language, with specific geographical limitations.
• Local Speech: Refers to linguistic peculiarities specific to a local character.

Diastratic (Social) Varieties

Diastratic varieties, also called sociolects, relate to the social distribution and stratification of speakers. These varieties are influenced... Continue reading "Linguistic Varieties: Geographical, Social, and Situational Factors" »

The 18th Century: Suppression and Survival of Catalan

The 18th century was characterized by the loss of political freedoms. To standardize the mainland territories, strongly divided by the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V promulgated the Decrees of Nueva Planta. These decrees were issued by the Consejo de Castilla (Council of Castile) with the aim of imposing cultural and linguistic unification and implementing administrative centralism. The legislation had a particularly repressive character, given that the Catalans had supported the Austrian candidate. The result was the abolition of autonomous institutions and the establishment of Spanish as the sole official language of the country.

To ensure the language shift from Catalan was completed... Continue reading "Bourbon Decrees and Catalan Linguistic Resistance" »

The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in 17th Century France

The historical framework of the 17th century, influenced by thinkers like René Descartes, saw a significant shift in France. Following the death of Henry IV, the monarchy transitioned from an authoritarian system to an absolute monarchy, a process initiated by Louis XIII and culminating under Louis XIV.

This authoritarian monarchy served as an intermediate stage between a king with limited power and the absolute authority later enjoyed by the monarch. Interestingly, the absolute monarchy found support among the bourgeoisie, who, in turn, were instrumental in its establishment.

The reign of Louis XIII was marked by the Thirty Years' War, a religious conflict that evolved into a struggle for... Continue reading "17th Century Europe: Absolutism, Crisis, and Modern Philosophy" »

Minority Influence

Social relations involve antagonistic forces, where some groups seek to maintain power and status while others strive for improvement. S. Moscovici investigated how minority groups can influence the majority. He conducted various experimental investigations:

• Consistency: The minority must consistently and persistently transmit their ideas, defending them with conviction.
• Flexibility: Consistency can be maintained rigidly or flexibly.
• Defections of the majority: The minority can challenge the social consensus by proposing alternatives to majority rule.
• Fighting psychologizing: Some groups attack the minority without considering their ideas, resorting to the Ad hominem fallacy.

Groups

Human groups are diverse, with varying structures... Continue reading "Minority Influence and Group Dynamics: Understanding Social Behavior" »

The Internet: Connectivity and Commerce

The Internet is essentially a network of networks where any computer can link up to information stored within it. It is accessed by a telecommunications line and a modulator-demodulator (MODEM), which converts analog telephone signals into digital computer signals for display on your computer screen.

Key Advantages of the Internet

The Internet offers numerous benefits, particularly in communication and business:

• Enhanced Global Communication: Communication is made very easy. Two people on opposite sides of the world may communicate with each other via tools such as videoconferences.
• Cost Savings: This ease of communication saves money on flights and travel, allowing professionals to hold meetings remotely

Catalan Modernism (1892-1911)

Modernism was a cultural renewal movement that aimed to transform Catalan culture into a modern, national, and European culture. It ensured that art was present in all artistic fields. It was a cultural movement with a Romantic character, produced in the West at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th.

Key Authors and Works

Santiago Rusiñol (1861-1931)

Santiago Rusiñol, a typical Bohemian figure, was also a Modernist painter. He was above the bourgeoisie, educated, and traveled to Paris. L'Auca del Senyor Esteve presents the case of Mr. Esteve, a bourgeois man with a familiar labor market. His child wants to be an artist, creating a father-son conflict. However, when Esteve is about to die, he acknowledges... Continue reading "Catalan Modernism: Authors, Works and Trends" »

Formation of the European Union

The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union (EU), expanding beyond the purely economic scope of its predecessor, the European Economic Community (EEC). The European Union is a unique legal entity with exclusive economic competencies, which member states are bound to comply with, while other competencies, such as common foreign and defense policies, are shared.

The Union's policies are reflected in its foundational treaties, encompassing key pillars:

• Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP): A unified approach to external relations and security.
• Justice and Home Affairs (JHA): Cooperation on issues like crime, asylum, and immigration.

The Maastricht Treaty also created European citizenship, granting citizens... Continue reading "European Union: Formation, Institutions, and Enlargement" »

Globalization: A Critical Introduction

Few social scientific concepts are currently in vogue like globalization. The term itself appeared in the 1980s in major North American schools of thought and management, yet its essential content, boundaries, and core profiles remain unclear.

The concept is heavily used in ideological and political struggles due to its ambiguity. It functions either as a mechanism *abetting the goals of the neoliberal right* or as a complex part of *left-wing groups and movements* who blame it for the ills afflicting the world. Globalization acts as an instrument for ideological diffusion and implementation, enforcing the so-called *Single Thought*.

The Primacy of the Economy and Neoliberal Dogma

The core dogma of neoliberal... Continue reading "The Critical Analysis of Globalization and Neoliberal Economic Primacy" »

The Theory of Evolution

It is now believed that all different lifestyles evolved from a common ancestor. The main idea of Darwin's theory was that change materialized in the morphological variation of species. These changes were slow and gradual. The process responsible for this evolution is natural selection.

Neodarwinism: Its central tenets are that variability is due to chance, mutation, and genetic recombination. Evolution takes place not on individuals but on the population.

Technology and Technoscience

Technique: A way of knowing is applied to the resolution of a practical matter. The systematic organization of practical knowledge is the basis of technology.

Technoscience: Science presents new challenges to be met. In this way, technology... Continue reading "Evolution, Science, and Technology: A Historical Journey" »

The Global Reach of Spanish

The reach of the Spanish language is vast, with the majority of speakers concentrated in Spain and the countries of Central and South America, excluding Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken. Additionally, there are single-state areas where Spanish is the primary language.

In areas formerly under Spanish rule, such as the Philippines, Western Sahara, Morocco, and Equatorial Guinea, Spanish remains influential. Judeo-Spanish, a 15th-century form of Spanish, is spoken in Israel.

While Spanish may be a third language for some, it is widely studied as a second language. The Cervantes Institute promotes the international diffusion of Spanish.

The Spanish of the Americas

We generically refer to the Spanish of the Americas as the... Continue reading "Spanish Language in the Americas: History and Influences" »