Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Understanding Political Systems

Dictatorship: An Undemocratic System

A dictatorship is a political system characterized by limited control of state power held by an individual or a small group. In such a system, the dictator is above the law, and their power is not subject to constitutional checks. It is further characterized by:

Key Characteristics of Dictatorships

• The absence of separation of powers.
• The abolition of social groups or political rivals.
• The restriction or elimination of civil liberties.

Dictatorships often utilize methods of intimidation and terror propaganda. They can also be led by charismatic figures and draw inspiration from various ideologies, both right-wing and left-wing.

Totalitarianism vs. Authoritarianism

Totalitarianism Defined

Totalitarianism... Continue reading "Understanding Global Political Systems: Democracy, Dictatorship, and Authoritarianism" »

Benefits of Developing Community Projects

There are many benefits to developing a good project. Among them, we note the following:

1. The community worker should reach an early agreement with the administration of which they form part. For this, the project must be sufficiently developed.
2. To start the community process and move people toward organization, you need dissatisfaction with the status quo and hope in the possibilities of a solution. To gather these possible solutions, it is necessary that the community worker announce some viable or true plan. That announcement builds on the intervention project.
3. The transaction between projects or the reappropriation of one of them by people recreating procedures leads to developing a community worker

The Cadiz Constitution (1812) and Early Foundations

In our country, the first Spanish Constitution of Cadiz in 1812 gave great importance to education, believing that freedom and rights were possible through the instruction of the people. Title XII and Articles 366–371 generalized elementary or primary education and attributed public education powers to the state.

Quintana Report (1813)

The Quintana Report (1813) laid the foundations of contemporary education policy, based on four principles:

• Equal rights of citizens to universal education.
• Uniformity of studies (centralized educational system, later decentralized to autonomous regions).
• Free education.
• Individual freedom, giving rise to the right of freedom of teaching and lecturing.

The Moyano

**Qualitative and Quantitative Research: A Synergistic Approach**

Burgess argued that statistical methods and case studies are not opposed, but in fact, complementary. Comparisons and statistical correlations may suggest clues for research, and documentary materials invite the construction of more appropriate statistical indicators. This represents a complementarity in the development and innovation of the technical concerns of the Chicago school.

Thirty-five years later, in his article, *Zeithel* develops qualitative community studies, analyzes them, and opens them up quantitatively. *Sieber* raises the need to distinguish the distinctive contribution of each method to the entire inquiry, to obtain better information and greater efficiency.... Continue reading "Qualitative and Quantitative Research: A Synergistic Approach" »

Action Research and Participatory Action Research

Research Action (AR)

*a. Value of the Researcher Investigated*

The researcher investigated breaks into a relationship of interest transformers. The research results are dumped on the other observed. The relationship between subject and another transformation is observed. Pragmatic perspective (subject to the other and vice versa observed causing a symmetrical relationship).

*b. Conception of the Object*

Observe to know, though differing in the method of study. Acting to know.

*c. Logic of Research*

Social Intervention

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

*a. Value of the Researcher Investigated*

Radical transformation in the way of investigating. Exchange of roles: The other device is observed synthesizer... Continue reading "Action Research and Participatory Action Research: Methods" »

19th-Century Ideas and Causes of World War I

Item 5: Evolution, Marxism and Nationalism

Darwin and Evolution

Darwin published On the Origin of Species, creating controversy between evolutionists and their critics until scientists gradually accepted Darwin's theories. He used the hypothetical-deductive method and applied the ideas of Malthus to explain the struggle for survival.

Marx and Materialism

Marx and historical materialism considered the relations of production to be the key to explaining how society was organized. The owners of the means of production were the dominant class, a condition that produced imbalance and led to class struggle. Marx argued that different modes of production had succeeded one another: slave, feudal, and capitalist.... Continue reading "Darwin, Marx, Nationalism and the Roots of World War I" »

The Constitution of 1812: Spain's First Liberal Charter

The Constitution of 1812, adopted on March 19, 1812, and popularly known as "La Pepa," was the first liberal constitution in Spain. It stands as a foundational text in the history of liberalism. Liberal members Agustín Argüelles, Diego Pérez, and Muñoz Castro were the three leading figures in its preparation.

Key Features of the 1812 Constitution

• National Sovereignty: Power resides in the nation, not the monarch.
• Separation of Powers:
  • Legislative Power: Cortes (parliamentary chamber).
  • Judiciary Power: Courts.
  • Executive Power: The King, but with significant limitations:
    • Royal orders required validation by the signature of the relevant minister.
    • The King could not dissolve the Cortes.
    • A suspensive

Management Philosophy

• Mid-Nineteenth Century

  Management was pyramidal, with the manager as the highest authority, dictating fixed ideas and implementation methods. Employees simply executed activities.

• Late Twentieth Century

  Managers and employees collaboratively set objectives. Employees have autonomy in organization and control, driving results.

Historical Features of Management

Administration predates Christ, originating in court administration. Mid-eighteenth-century methods persisted until 40 years ago. Subsequent industrial-level investigations led to:

• Increased use of machinery
• Centralization of production activities
• New employer-employee relationships
• Separation of customer and producer

The need for evolving goal-setting methods led to the emergence... Continue reading "Management Evolution: From Pyramidal to Collaborative" »

In the past, men were governed on behalf of kings. Today, the agencies that allow the government of complex societies are called bureaucracy or administrative bureaucracy.

Criteria for Effective Participation

All members of society should recognize the same ability to express their views on those issues that have to do with the main priorities of the government of their community.

Equal Voting Rights for All Adults

All members of this society must have the same ability to influence the governance of their community. All adult individuals shall have the right to vote, all votes have the same value, and all individuals have an effective capacity to exercise their right to vote. In most societies, the vote is organized so that:

• All individuals can

An analysis of the events that led to the Declaration of Independence helps uncover the tyrannical actions against American revolutionaries who claimed their rights and freedoms. The Declaration of Independence serves as a crucial historical reference, stating that the tyrannical actions of the English monarch had extended for years, preceding 1776, back to 1765. In that year, delegates from 9 of the 13 colonies met in New York for the famous Stamp Act Congress, where they challenged a series of tax provisions imposed by the motherland on internal consumption within the colonies.

The Stamp Act Congress: Seeds of Resistance

It was soon realized that the long period of colonial rule, whose origins were purely economic and commercial, had evolved... Continue reading "Road to Revolution: Colonial Rights & British Rule" »