Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Understanding Society: Individuals, Groups, and Sociology

The Individual

• The individual is the smallest unit that makes up society, serving as the primary subject of sociological study. They are considered the irreducible social mass.

Society

• A society is a human group characterized by a degree of unity and independence from others. It often occupies a stable space, possesses continuity over time that exceeds its members' lifespans, and shares a common culture that provides cohesion.

Sociology

• Sociology is the science dedicated to studying both society and the individuals who compose it. It aims to critically analyze and understand societal structures and dynamics.

Agents of Socialization and Their Societal Impact

Key Socializing Agents

• The Family:

Economic and Social Transformations

Demographic Revolution

The Demographic Revolution is due to increased food production and, to a lesser degree, the progress of hygiene and medicine.

Impact of Railway and Steamship on Trade

The railway and steamship facilitated the establishment of a market economy by expanding market reach, particularly into foreign markets.

Defining the Market Economy

The market economy expanded local markets. This expansion was driven by free trade (or laissez-faire), which facilitated overseas delivery. However, this system often contrasts with protectionism, where tariffs must be paid when selling a product in another country.

Core Principles of Liberalism

Liberalism is a group of political, social, and economic ideologies centered... Continue reading "Key Economic Systems and 19th Century Political Ideologies" »

Hume: Historical Context

England after the Revolution of 1688:

• Bourgeois revolution, parliamentary monarchy, supremacy of Parliament.
• Individual rights and religious freedoms.
• Political and economic freedom: abolition of monopolies.
• England becomes the leading economic power, industrial and capitalist.

Pre-revolutionary France:

• Enlightened despotism: everything for the people but without the people.
• Increasing influence of figured secularization, deism, atheism.

Rousseau: Historical Context

Pre-revolutionary France:

• Enlightened despotism: the monarch has absolute power he receives from God. The king is the sovereign (who has all authority).
• Influence of Enlightenment ideas in the monarchies of the continent to girders of the nobility and high bourgeoisie.

Globalization Process

The unification of the world drives the circulation of material and immaterial goods, leading to the re-globalization of economic, social, political, and cultural aspects. This globalization has unique characteristics that differentiate it from other stages of capitalism:

1. State reform and deregulation of economic and financial activities.
2. Productive restructuring and the emergence of new forms of labor organization.
3. Processes of regionalization and integration, leading to the formation of large economic blocs.

Fordism

Fordism is a specific way of organizing the production process that characterized the capitalist system from the 1930s. Using an assembly line, as pioneered by Ford Motors in the early 20th century, it represents... Continue reading "Globalization and Economic Transformation" »

Understanding Socio-Economic Formation

The text explains that to achieve desired outcomes, individuals engage in work, establishing relationships of production that form the foundation of society. Improvements in these relationships correlate with increased productivity, influencing what Marx termed the legal and economic superstructure. This superstructure shapes consciousness, justifying reality from a social perspective.

Justification of Social Change

The text highlights the contradiction between productive forces and relations of production. When this contradiction arises, it triggers a shift in the societal foundation.

Productive forces and relations of production constitute the infrastructure, the real basis of society. This infrastructure... Continue reading "Understanding Socio-Economic Formation and Historical Materialism" »

Karl Marx (1820-1883): Historical, Philosophical, and Cultural Context

19th Century Context

Economic Context

Karl Marx's work developed during the 19th century, a period marked by the Industrial Revolution. The steam engine propelled advancements in railways, steel production, and steamships, leading to large-scale industrial production. Marx believed that these evolving productive forces drive changes in production relations when conflicts arise. The bourgeoisie, promoters of the industrial revolution, clashed with the proletariat, who suffered the alienating effects of industrialization. These effects included excessive working hours, subhuman labor conditions for women and children, dismissals without retirement, meager wages, lack of insurance... Continue reading "Karl Marx: Philosophy, Economics and Influence" »

Diversity of Goals in Community Health Social Work

There is a huge diversity of goals in community social work within the health field. These goals range significantly. For example, one goal might be organizing a community to accept and manage an illness suffered by some of its members who are stigmatized, helping them build community ties and create a social space where they can interact (as in the case of HIV). Another goal might be organizing the population to eradicate diseases affecting the community due to the use of polluted water.

Goals for Community Social Work in the Health Field

Globalization, in its most amiable forms (tourism and travel) and in its most cruel forms (migration flows moving millions of people in precarious conditions)... Continue reading "Community Social Work in Health: Goals and Strategic Orientations" »

South African Terminology

Acacia: A small tree with white or yellow flowers.

Acting: Temporarily doing the job of another person.

Afrikaans: A South African language developed from the 17th century.

Afrikaner: A South African descended from the Dutch who speaks Afrikaans.

Amen: A word used to show sincere approval of something that has just been said (used, for example, at the end of a prayer).

Authority: The power to give orders to other people and make them obey.

Ban (v): To forbid someone by law from doing or saying something.

Banning area: The area where, by law, a banned person must stay.

Bantu: A word used by white South Africans for black people.

Black Consciousness: A South African organization, led by Stephen Biko, which believed that black... Continue reading "South African Terminology: Definitions and Meanings" »

Duties of Teachers

• Diagnosis of Needs: Understanding students' individual needs and learning styles.
• Class Preparation: Organizing and managing learning situations, preparing materials for students.
• Motivation: Inspiring and engaging students in the learning process.
• Student-Centered Teaching: Focusing on the needs and progress of individual students.
• Diversity and Inclusion: Considering the diverse backgrounds and learning styles of all students.
• Classroom Management: Suggesting learning activities, guiding their implementation, presenting content with a global and interdisciplinary perspective, and maintaining discipline and order in class.
• Evaluation: Assessing student performance and providing feedback.
• Mentoring and Role Modeling: Serving as a

Key Theories in International Relations

Theories: The discipline of international relations began shortly before World War I in Western Europe and the U.S. There are two primary ways to conceptualize the war: diplomacy, favored by those seeking peace, and force, the basis of foreign policy at the time. This period saw a clash between idealism and realism. All the great powers were involved, and the increased presence of the media amplified public opinion.

Politically, an idealistic proposition known as the League of Nations emerged. This organization proposed a global alliance of countries to prevent future wars.

Current Theoretical Perspectives

• Realism (State-Centric) - Thomas Hobbes: A key figure in establishing the concept of order. Hobbes's