Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

IMG a company has many images as each person hold different images of the company. Company manages its images and develops them by coordinating its internal operations to build a desired image in the minds of various target audiences. It can help to deliver good customer service or also recover from an episode of bad publicity. The company's image is formed by what people say about the company and what the company says about itself. Vision is crucial. As a conclusion, it is the total impression an organization makes on the mind of people, this tends to humanize them to see them much as they do human in terms of being mature, liberal, or friendly. A healthy image characterizes strong emotional response, appearance of power (feeling the power... Continue reading "Building a Strong Company Image: Elements and Dimensions" »

The Concept of Law

Distinction between Law and Right

Law

It is the set of principles and norms governing human relations in society. It is a comprehensive code addressing all aspects of personal and social interactions.

Right

It is the faculty or ability of every human being to act permissibly or demand what aligns with their dignity. Human rights are a clear example.

Types of Law

Positive Law (Derecho positivo)

The system of rules established by a particular state, applicable at a specific time and place. This is known as the legislation of a country.

Natural Law (Derecho natural)

A set of universal and immutable principles and rules. Positive law should align with natural law, as the latter establishes what is just, not merely legal.

Principles of Law

Principle

The Evolving Landscape of Future Employment

Today, many cities worldwide face the challenge of unemployment. This complex issue stems from various underlying factors. This analysis will explore the future of employment, focusing on a critical contemporary concern: the profound impact of new technologies on the labor sector.

Technology's Dual Impact on the Workforce

On one hand, while some jobs face redundancy, others are experiencing rapid growth. Existing roles are also undergoing significant transformations in their required skill sets. However, the advent of new technologies does not automatically lead to widespread job displacement. Instead, it signifies a major breakthrough in research and development.

For instance, even as some companies... Continue reading "Workforce Transformation: Adapting to Technological Change" »

Key Institutions of the European Union

European Parliament

• Role: A body of the European Union elected by direct universal suffrage, with legislative, budgetary, and supervisory powers.
• Members: 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs).
• President: Antonio Tajani.
• Established:
  • 1952 as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community.
  • 1962 as the European Parliament (first direct elections in 1979).
• Seats: Strasbourg (France), Brussels (Belgium), and Luxembourg (Luxembourg).

European Council

• Role: Defines the main orientations and political priorities of the European Union.
• Members: The Heads of State and Government of the EU Member States, the President of the European Commission, and the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs

Charles Lyell and Natural Selection

Principles of Change in Species

(b) Law of Change: Principles of mobility applied to animal species. The history of mankind is not planned or organized. Everything is open to change and unpredictable. There is complete historical uncertainty.

Species Identity and Gradualism

(c) Dissolved Idea of Stable Identities for Species: Species never originated suddenly, but as a process and a transition, through the gradual accumulation of slight differences.

Natural Selection as a Destructive Force

(d) Natural Selection: This mechanism only preserved some species by destroying many; it was arguably a destructive force. If everything in mankind is subject to competition (Natural Selection), we are all enemies of everyone.... Continue reading "Lyell, Darwin, and Evolutionary Thought Shifts" »

The New Deal of the 1930s

Following the Crash of '29, greater state interventionism became necessary.

1. The American New Deal created a social security system in 1935.
2. Initially, this system was only available for white people.

Defining the Welfare State

The Welfare State is a core concept in political and economic sciences. It designates a political proposal and general model of social organization where the State provides services in compliance with social rights to all inhabitants of a country.

It encompasses two aspects simultaneously:

• A political technology
• A social ontology

It was created primarily to solve the problem of social conflicts arising from the limitations of private insurance and mutual systems working. It primarily benefits the middle... Continue reading "The Welfare State: Origins, Keynesian Model, and the 1970s Crisis" »

Risk and Social Change

Reflexive Modernization and Risk Society

• Increasing Risks
• Increasing possibilities, options, decision-making alternatives
• Increasing reflexivity (reflexive modernity)
• Increasing the feeling of taking risks (Risk Society)

Reflexive Modernization: Beck, Giddens, and Lash

Reflexivity

• Beck: Focused on the role of unintended dynamics of modernity (non-knowledge), which are what cause the unintended risks.
• Giddens: It is precisely this knowledge that creates most of the manufactured risks that affect us (such as nuclear energy) and that replace the natural ones (such as earthquakes). Because of the knowledge...

Reflexive Modernization and Risk Society

Increasing the Feeling of Taking Risks (Risk Society)

Crisis of Meaning – Disenchantment

Individualization:

Isabella II: The Liberal State Begins (1833–1843)

The building of the liberal state began in Spain when Isabella II was a child (1833–1843).

The Regency of Maria Christina (1833–1840)

Maria Christina supported the Moderate Liberals, but a series of military uprisings and popular revolts forced her to hand power over to the Progressive Liberals.

Mendizábal, the leader of the Progressive Liberals, began the abolishment of the Ancien Régime by introducing fiscal reform. A new Progressive Constitution was drafted in 1837. Key features included:

• National sovereignty with census suffrage.
• The separation of powers and the establishment of two chambers.
• The granting of many rights and individual liberties.

The Regency of Espartero (1840–1843)

In 1837,... Continue reading "The Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868): Formation of the Spanish Liberal State" »

Diversity in County Government Structures

Historically, states created counties as their administrative arms, which is why counties are often described as legal subdivisions of the state. However, terminology varies:

• In Louisiana, counties are called “parishes.”
• In Alaska, counties are called “boroughs.”

Types of Municipal Charters

Municipalities operate under various types of charters:

• Special Act Charters
• General Act Charters
• Optional Charters
• Home Rule Charters

Models of City Government

Commission Model:

This model gives both legislative and executive powers to a small body, usually consisting of five members. The board of commissioners is directly responsible for the operation of city departments and agencies.

Council-Manager Model:

The council

American Culture in the 1920s: The Jazz Age

The 1920s ushered in an era of mass entertainment, often dubbed the “Jazz Age,” characterized by the widespread adoption of radio in nearly every home. Popular music genres included jazz, blues, and hillbilly.

Regarding the film industry, most movies remained silent until 1927, and the actors were often considered more important than the stories themselves. Sports also became a mass spectacle, particularly baseball, football, and basketball. Dance crazes of the era included the Charleston and the Fox-Trot.

Culture was often categorized into three levels:

• Highbrow: Elite culture.
• Middlebrow: Entertainment for the masses.
• Lowbrow: Culture that required little thought, often associated with popular music.