Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Charles Lyell and Natural Selection

Principles of Change in Species

(b) Law of Change: Principles of mobility applied to animal species. The history of mankind is not planned or organized. Everything is open to change and unpredictable. There is complete historical uncertainty.

Species Identity and Gradualism

(c) Dissolved Idea of Stable Identities for Species: Species never originated suddenly, but as a process and a transition, through the gradual accumulation of slight differences.

Natural Selection as a Destructive Force

(d) Natural Selection: This mechanism only preserved some species by destroying many; it was arguably a destructive force. If everything in mankind is subject to competition (Natural Selection), we are all enemies of everyone.... Continue reading "Lyell, Darwin, and Evolutionary Thought Shifts" »

The New Deal of the 1930s

Following the Crash of '29, greater state interventionism became necessary.

1. The American New Deal created a social security system in 1935.
2. Initially, this system was only available for white people.

Defining the Welfare State

The Welfare State is a core concept in political and economic sciences. It designates a political proposal and general model of social organization where the State provides services in compliance with social rights to all inhabitants of a country.

It encompasses two aspects simultaneously:

• A political technology
• A social ontology

It was created primarily to solve the problem of social conflicts arising from the limitations of private insurance and mutual systems working. It primarily benefits the middle... Continue reading "The Welfare State: Origins, Keynesian Model, and the 1970s Crisis" »

Risk and Social Change

Reflexive Modernization and Risk Society

• Increasing Risks
• Increasing possibilities, options, decision-making alternatives
• Increasing reflexivity (reflexive modernity)
• Increasing the feeling of taking risks (Risk Society)

Reflexive Modernization: Beck, Giddens, and Lash

Reflexivity

• Beck: Focused on the role of unintended dynamics of modernity (non-knowledge), which are what cause the unintended risks.
• Giddens: It is precisely this knowledge that creates most of the manufactured risks that affect us (such as nuclear energy) and that replace the natural ones (such as earthquakes). Because of the knowledge...

Reflexive Modernization and Risk Society

Increasing the Feeling of Taking Risks (Risk Society)

Crisis of Meaning – Disenchantment

Individualization:

Isabella II: The Liberal State Begins (1833–1843)

The building of the liberal state began in Spain when Isabella II was a child (1833–1843).

The Regency of Maria Christina (1833–1840)

Maria Christina supported the Moderate Liberals, but a series of military uprisings and popular revolts forced her to hand power over to the Progressive Liberals.

Mendizábal, the leader of the Progressive Liberals, began the abolishment of the Ancien Régime by introducing fiscal reform. A new Progressive Constitution was drafted in 1837. Key features included:

• National sovereignty with census suffrage.
• The separation of powers and the establishment of two chambers.
• The granting of many rights and individual liberties.

The Regency of Espartero (1840–1843)

In 1837,... Continue reading "The Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868): Formation of the Spanish Liberal State" »

Diversity in County Government Structures

Historically, states created counties as their administrative arms, which is why counties are often described as legal subdivisions of the state. However, terminology varies:

• In Louisiana, counties are called “parishes.”
• In Alaska, counties are called “boroughs.”

Types of Municipal Charters

Municipalities operate under various types of charters:

• Special Act Charters
• General Act Charters
• Optional Charters
• Home Rule Charters

Models of City Government

Commission Model:

This model gives both legislative and executive powers to a small body, usually consisting of five members. The board of commissioners is directly responsible for the operation of city departments and agencies.

Council-Manager Model:

The council

American Culture in the 1920s: The Jazz Age

The 1920s ushered in an era of mass entertainment, often dubbed the “Jazz Age,” characterized by the widespread adoption of radio in nearly every home. Popular music genres included jazz, blues, and hillbilly.

Regarding the film industry, most movies remained silent until 1927, and the actors were often considered more important than the stories themselves. Sports also became a mass spectacle, particularly baseball, football, and basketball. Dance crazes of the era included the Charleston and the Fox-Trot.

Culture was often categorized into three levels:

• Highbrow: Elite culture.
• Middlebrow: Entertainment for the masses.
• Lowbrow: Culture that required little thought, often associated with popular music.

Introduction

In Ecuador, several sectors are predicted to be the most popular career preferences for young people in the next five years. These sectors include economics, technology, and the environment.

Economic Sector

The economic growth in Ecuador has created a positive effect on young people, leading them to learn about trade and the stock market. This has resulted in an increase in the number of young people choosing economics as a career path.

Technological Sector

The technological sector in Ecuador has been growing rapidly, creating a demand for innovative and creative workers. This sector includes fields such as creative design animation and information technology.

Environmental Sector

Climate change and environmental problems in Ecuador have... Continue reading "Popular Career Preferences for Young People in Ecuador" »

The Origins of the European Union

After World War II (1939-1945), the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, dwarfing the power of European nations. To counterbalance this new world order and foster cooperation, European countries decided to establish a continent-wide organization.

Their objectives were twofold:

• To safeguard peace and prevent future conflicts.
• To collectively compete with the superpowers on the global stage.

Key Milestones in EU Formation

1950: On May 9th, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed the creation of a united Europe.

1951: Six countries—Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands—agreed to pool their coal and steel resources, forming the European Coal and Steel Community... Continue reading "The European Union: History, Institutions, and Challenges" »

Kenya vs Basque Education Systems

Comparing Kenya and Basque education systems

Education systems differ depending on the country and its status, producing different results. Because of that, we compare two countries to demonstrate the similarities and differences between them. Although education systems vary, there are also some common characteristics.

Geography and Demographics

Geographical and demographical location

Kenya is a state located in the African Great Lakes region of East Africa, whereas the Basque Country is situated in the north of Spain and in the south of France. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi. According to some research, there were around 44,037,656 inhabitants in 2013. The Basque Country is divided into seven provinces... Continue reading "Kenya vs Basque Education Systems: Differences & Similarities" »

The Savage Male: Yanomamo Aggression and Society

1. Literal Comprehension of Yanomamo Conflict

The Yanomamo are one of the most aggressive, war-loving, and male-oriented societies in the world. The bodies of adult males and females are covered with wounds and scars. Wives must obey their husbands without question.

Ritualized Duels and Warfare Practices

• Chest-Pounding Duels: The guest hits the host's chest with a fist as hard as possible. Later, the host reciprocates by hitting the guest back. The more one receives, the more one can hit back.
• Side-Slapping Duels: The opponent hits with open hands just below the ribs.
• Club Fights: The competitor strikes the head with a pole.
• Spear Fights: This is the most dangerous form of conflict.

Fighting against... Continue reading "Yanomamo Tribe Conflict, Male Supremacy, and Ritual Warfare" »