Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Risk and Social Change

Reflexive Modernization and Risk Society

• Increasing Risks
• Increasing possibilities, options, decision-making alternatives
• Increasing reflexivity (reflexive modernity)
• Increasing the feeling of taking risks (Risk Society)

Reflexive Modernization: Beck, Giddens, and Lash

Reflexivity

• Beck: Focused on the role of unintended dynamics of modernity (non-knowledge), which are what cause the unintended risks.
• Giddens: It is precisely this knowledge that creates most of the manufactured risks that affect us (such as nuclear energy) and that replace the natural ones (such as earthquakes). Because of the knowledge...

Reflexive Modernization and Risk Society

Increasing the Feeling of Taking Risks (Risk Society)

Crisis of Meaning – Disenchantment

Individualization:

Isabella II: The Liberal State Begins (1833–1843)

The building of the liberal state began in Spain when Isabella II was a child (1833–1843).

The Regency of Maria Christina (1833–1840)

Maria Christina supported the Moderate Liberals, but a series of military uprisings and popular revolts forced her to hand power over to the Progressive Liberals.

Mendizábal, the leader of the Progressive Liberals, began the abolishment of the Ancien Régime by introducing fiscal reform. A new Progressive Constitution was drafted in 1837. Key features included:

• National sovereignty with census suffrage.
• The separation of powers and the establishment of two chambers.
• The granting of many rights and individual liberties.

The Regency of Espartero (1840–1843)

In 1837,... Continue reading "The Reign of Isabella II (1833–1868): Formation of the Spanish Liberal State" »

Diversity in County Government Structures

Historically, states created counties as their administrative arms, which is why counties are often described as legal subdivisions of the state. However, terminology varies:

• In Louisiana, counties are called “parishes.”
• In Alaska, counties are called “boroughs.”

Types of Municipal Charters

Municipalities operate under various types of charters:

• Special Act Charters
• General Act Charters
• Optional Charters
• Home Rule Charters

Models of City Government

Commission Model:

This model gives both legislative and executive powers to a small body, usually consisting of five members. The board of commissioners is directly responsible for the operation of city departments and agencies.

Council-Manager Model:

The council

American Culture in the 1920s: The Jazz Age

The 1920s ushered in an era of mass entertainment, often dubbed the “Jazz Age,” characterized by the widespread adoption of radio in nearly every home. Popular music genres included jazz, blues, and hillbilly.

Regarding the film industry, most movies remained silent until 1927, and the actors were often considered more important than the stories themselves. Sports also became a mass spectacle, particularly baseball, football, and basketball. Dance crazes of the era included the Charleston and the Fox-Trot.

Culture was often categorized into three levels:

• Highbrow: Elite culture.
• Middlebrow: Entertainment for the masses.
• Lowbrow: Culture that required little thought, often associated with popular music.

Introduction

In Ecuador, several sectors are predicted to be the most popular career preferences for young people in the next five years. These sectors include economics, technology, and the environment.

Economic Sector

The economic growth in Ecuador has created a positive effect on young people, leading them to learn about trade and the stock market. This has resulted in an increase in the number of young people choosing economics as a career path.

Technological Sector

The technological sector in Ecuador has been growing rapidly, creating a demand for innovative and creative workers. This sector includes fields such as creative design animation and information technology.

Environmental Sector

Climate change and environmental problems in Ecuador have... Continue reading "Popular Career Preferences for Young People in Ecuador" »

The Origins of the European Union

After World War II (1939-1945), the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, dwarfing the power of European nations. To counterbalance this new world order and foster cooperation, European countries decided to establish a continent-wide organization.

Their objectives were twofold:

• To safeguard peace and prevent future conflicts.
• To collectively compete with the superpowers on the global stage.

Key Milestones in EU Formation

1950: On May 9th, French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed the creation of a united Europe.

1951: Six countries—Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands—agreed to pool their coal and steel resources, forming the European Coal and Steel Community... Continue reading "The European Union: History, Institutions, and Challenges" »

A person might be ill in one respect but well or healthy in others, it means that illness and health there are not opposite, so illness is not a lack of health and being healthy does not mean a person is well in all respects (psychologically and physically). WHO defines health like a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. In the last 60 years, psychologists use the Disease Model, making miserable people less miserable. However one of the challenges of psychology nowadays is to discover how to promote health to get better people’s lives, it calls positive psychology. So the aim of this essay is to know how to promote health.

Martin Seligman proposes different techniques,... Continue reading "Promoting Health: Positive Actions and Behavior Change" »

Historical Development of Literary Theory

Literary Science vs. Literary Studies

• Restrictiveness
• A search for models, patterns, and schemes in the literary work
• Repetitiveness
• Making theory firmer, more coherent
• Borrowing from linguistics
• (For example, Structuralists in the mid 20th century)

Interpretation in Literary Theory

Monistic Systems

• Psychoanalysis (relation of conscious and unconscious psychological processes)
• Hermeneutics (holy texts)
• Phenomenology (experienced

Democracy

A democracy is a political system that empowers individuals to participate in the governing process. There are two primary types of democracies:

Direct Democracy

In a direct democracy, citizens directly participate in making laws and governing. Ancient Athens serves as a historical example, where citizens could attend assemblies and directly influence decision-making.

Representative Democracy

Representative democracies involve citizens electing representatives who make laws on their behalf. Spain and the United States exemplify this system, where citizens vote for legislators who then enact legislation. In the US, even the president is chosen by electors representing the citizens' wishes.

Other forms of democracy include:

• Deliberative Democracy:

Foundations of the United States

A long time ago, many people from the U.K. decided to travel by boat (the Mayflower) to a new land to settle. This new land belonged to Great Britain, and the British King George III ruled both lands. Thirteen colonies were formed there.

Eventually, some colonists sought independence, refusing to remain under the rule of the King of England. Many Patriots decided to fight for freedom, initiating the conflict against the powerful British army.

The Birth of a Nation

• Declaration of Independence: After the war began, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence in June 1776. It was discussed and approved by delegates meeting at Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
• Revolutionary War: The war, which was cruel and