Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

Causes of World War I

The outbreak of the Great War was driven by militarism (the arms race) and the alliance system, consisting of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. Nationalism fueled tensions, particularly between Germany and France, and Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Serbian expansionism, the rejection of the ultimatum, and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand were critical triggers. Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum with German support (the "blank cheque"), while Russia promoted Serbian Pan-Slavism, sought war against Germany, and mobilized its army. Germany faced tensions with France and the UK and eventually invaded Belgium. France sought revenge against Germany and was allied with Russia, while the UK defended Belgium... Continue reading "The Great War and the Rise of the Soviet Union" »

Blood: Functions and Composition

Blood is a type of connective tissue. It is a thick red liquid made up of specialized cells suspended in a watery solution of molecules and ions. Blood transports nutrients and oxygen to the cells and carries waste residues to where they can be eliminated. Besides that, it regulates body temperature, pH and water volume, transports hormones, and defends our body from infections or from excessive blood loss when we get wounded. Blood is the only liquid tissue in our body because the matrix in which blood cells are immersed is liquid. The liquid component of blood is called plasma and it represents about 55% of blood volume.

Plasma: Composition and Role

Plasma is a pale yellow liquid. About 90% of it is water. The... Continue reading "Human Blood: Composition, Functions, Cardiac Cycle & Edema" »

1921, hungary dictatrship by Horty. 1922, Italy by Mussolini. 1923,Spain by Primo de Rivera. 1926, poland by Pilsduki. 1929, Yugoslava by Alexander I. 1932, Portugal by Salazar. 1933, Germany by Hitler, Austria by Dollfus. 1936, Greece by Metaxas. 1939, Spain by Franco.

1931, Japan occupies Manchuria. 1933, Hitler cancellor. 1935, Italy invades ethipia. 1936, Rome-berlin axis, anti-commitern pact. 1938, Germany annexes autsria, munich conference. 1939, germany annexes czechoslovakia, nazi soviet pact.

1940 (MAY) germany occupies netherlands and belgium. (JUNE) germany occupies paris. (JULY) start battle britain. (OCT) italy invades greece. 1941 (JUNE) germany invades the ussr. (DEC) japan attack pearl harbour.

1942, battle of midway and el alemin.... Continue reading "Timeline of World War II: Rise of Dictatorships and Key Events" »

Chemical Change vs. Phase Change

Chemical change: Produces new substances that didn't exist before.

Phase change: The substance remains the same before and after the process.

Dissolving: It is only a homogeneous mixture; no new substances appear.

Identifying Chemical Changes

How do we know if a chemical change is occurring?

• Gas release: Gases may not be visible; we identify them by bubbles in a liquid.
• Color change
• Thermal energy change
• Energy release as light

Understanding Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction occurs when the starting substances, called reactants, transform into other new substances, called products.

The appearance of new substances is due to the rearrangement of the reactant's atoms, forming the products. The information about a chemical... Continue reading "Chemical Reactions and Their Impact on Industry" »

Adjusting Events

The following events require adjustments in financial statements:

• Settlement of a court case
• Asset impairments (asset not well accounted for)
• Determination of costs of assets purchased or sold before the reporting period
• Determination of profit or bonus payment
• Fraud or errors

Non-Adjusting Events

The following events do not require adjustments in financial statements:

• Major business combinations or disposal of a subsidiary (sell of a subsidiary)
• Plan to discontinue operations
• Purchases of assets or expropriation by government
• Destruction of a plant (by a fire, earthquake…)
• Restructuring
• Ordinary shares transactions
• Changes in asset prices or foreign exchange rates after reporting period
• Changes in tax rates or tax law
• New commitments or

-Inquisition: An institution that pursued heretics and judaisers, forced both to submit to baptism or leave the country.

-Corregidores: People chosen by the king to control city government.

-Councils: A royal court made up of jurists to improve administration and undertake governance of specific territories.

-Chancillerías: Royal courts located in Valladolid and Granada. They established an efficient political economy and increased royal income.

-Santa Hermandad: The body which maintained social order in rural areas.

-Royal secretaries: Councils responsible for studying important matters and giving advice to the monarch.

-Viceroy: The representative of the monarch in each territory who had a range of powers including the summoning and overseeing... Continue reading "Spanish Institutions and Conquests: A Historical Overview" »

Key Events: Spring 1940

In Spring 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secure supplies of Swedish steel.

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War)

A rapid attack strategy designed to avoid the prolonged trench warfare experienced in WWI.

Early German Successes

• Germany conquered Paris in 1940, leading to France being divided into North and South zones. The South was governed by Vichy, led by Marshal Pétain.
• June 1940: Battle of Britain commenced.
• In 1941, German troops landed in Africa to drive the English out of Egypt and control the Suez Canal.
• April 1941: Germany, alongside Italy, invaded Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greece.
• June 1941: Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, attacking the USSR.
• December 1941: Japan launched a surprise attack on the USA at Pearl

Oparin’s Theory of the Origin of Life

1. The primitive atmosphere was made up of gases: ammonia, water vapor, methane, and hydrogen.
2. The energy for the first chemical reactions to occur came from volcanic eruptions, radiation from the sun, and storms.
3. The temperature of the Earth fell, so the water vapor condensed and formed seas.
4. Organic molecules, synthesized by the reactions, accumulated in the water and joined together to form bigger molecules.
5. Coacervates were structures formed by organic molecules insulated from the water.
6. The first cell appeared when the coacervates started to reproduce.

The Endosymbiotic Theory

The Endosymbiotic Theory of Margulis explains the appearance of the first eukaryotic living things from the symbiotic relationships... Continue reading "Origins of Life and Biological Evidence for Evolution" »

Verticalist Theories and Fixism

Verticalist theories propose that movement in terrestrial materials is primarily vertical. These are considered fixist theories.

Key Aspects of Verticalist Theories

• Movement in terrestrial materials is vertical.
• They are fixist theories.
• Some related phenomena occur in the Earth's crust, such as Eustatic changes and Isostasy.

Understanding Eustatic Changes

Eustatic changes refer to global changes in sea level of greater amplitude than normal tides.

Causes of Sea Level Variation

These variations are driven by two main factors:

1. Variation in the volume of water in the oceans:
   • Glaciations: When ice sheets form, water is locked up, causing sea level to fall.
   • Thermal Contraction or Dilation: Changes in ocean temperature cause

Composition of the Atmosphere

• Nitrogen: 78%
• Oxygen: 21%
• Other: 1% (carbon dioxide, ozone)

Due to the pull of gravity, the atmosphere’s density decreases with altitude. Weather is directly related to air pressure, and the pressure of an air column on a body decreases as altitude increases.

Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere

Temperature: Decreases. This is the lowest, thinnest, and densest layer, containing 80% of the atmosphere's mass. Weather occurs here. The tropopause acts as a barrier between cold and hot air, and this is where airplanes fly.

Stratosphere

Temperature: Increases. Contains 19% of the air. Temperature rises because gas particles absorb solar radiation. It houses the ozone layer, which shields humans from ultraviolet radiation. Weather... Continue reading "Earth's Atmosphere Layers and Composition Explained" »