Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

Mesopotamia

The first urban civilization emerged in the 4th millennium BC in Lower Mesopotamia, within the Sumerian region. Between the 3rd and 1st millennium BC, the area was dominated by different peoples. In the mid-3rd millennium BC, King Sargon conquered Lower Mesopotamia and established the Kingdom of Akkad.

Writing appeared around 2500 BC, which allowed for the beginning of accounting. Kings also established fixed laws.

Cuneiform Writing

Origin: It began with pictograms, which represented an object or concept. Then came the ideograms, which represented actions or more general concepts. This evolution resulted in cuneiform writing.

Method: Scribes made incisions with styluses on wet clay tablets.

Mesopotamian Art

Architecture: Palaces and temples...

Renaissance Art and Philosophical Thinking

Renaissance art and philosophical thinking represent a new way to understand the movement of life.

Origins of the Italian Renaissance

The Renaissance was born in Italy in the fifteenth century, where there were numerous Greco-Roman artistic remains. In Italy at this time, there were many powerful families, and the region saw the most dynamic economic activities in trade and finance. Theocentrism was set aside in favor of the importance of humanity. Several inventions, such as the printing press, aided this transition.

The Rise of Humanism

Humanism served as the Renaissance's intellectual, literary, and philosophical expression.

Key Features of Humanist Thought

• Anthropocentrism: The human being was established

Master and Disciple: The Way of Life

The disciple does not merely listen to the teachings of the master, but remains, lives with him, and accepts his word, making it a way of life. Apostles, meaning “sent,” are his most cherished followers.

The Community of Jesus' Followers

Jesus asked and hoped that the group of his followers would establish an intense bond among themselves, like a new family—a true community of brothers united by the love of God the Father.

Continuing the Work of Jesus

The group of disciples is bound to continue the work of Jesus, extending the mission and preaching about the Kingdom of God.

The Feast of Pentecost

Pentecost means “fiftieth day.” On the day of Pentecost, the disciples were filled with the Holy Spirit. This...

St. Vincent Ferrer's Sermons and Influence

How did St. Vincent Ferrer influence his audience? He created a huge expectation among the people and was quick to incorporate their perspectives into his sermons.

Preaching Techniques of St. Vincent Ferrer

St. Vincent Ferrer used modulated, almost yelling exclamations and onomatopoeia to create emotional and amazing effects, holding the audience's attention. He promoted dialogue within his sermons, dramatized the stories he told, used simple theatrical imagery, and always related doctrine to reality with examples and arguments.

The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century

Several factors contributed to the crisis of the fourteenth century:

• Wars and the relentless advance of the Turks threatened trade routes.
• The

Roman Culture and the Rise of Christianity

Roman culture assimilated Greek culture, developing every edge of the Hellenistic tradition. The Romans assimilated the religions of the Greeks, Persians, and Egyptians. Christianity in Roman culture was a novelty that began with the figure of Jesus, introducing a new cosmology, theology, anthropology, and ethics.

The Patristic Period: Defending the Faith

The Patristics: These thinkers wanted to know God and defend the faith. This period lasted from the 2nd to the 8th century. There were two groups regarding philosophy: Tertullian (2nd-3rd century) viewed philosophers as "friends of the faith" making an understandable mistake. In favor of philosophy was Justin Martyr (and the school of Alexandria), who...

Augustine's Dual Cities: Earthly and Heavenly

This text is drawn from The City of God (De Civitate Dei), a foundational work that interprets world history from a Christian standpoint. It is crucial not to interpret these concepts as geographically localizable cities, but rather as allegorical examples illustrating the fundamental difference between those who follow Christ and those who are motivated solely by self-love.

The Nature of Peace on Earth

This specific discussion focuses on temporal peace—peace on earth—as it is appropriate to both the Earthly City and the Heavenly City (the Church) while it resides on earth. Both entities desire this peace to fulfill their respective needs (or bonds).

The Earthly City (Civitas Terrena)

The Earthly...

I. Key Terms & Definitions

A. People

• Judas Iscariot: Betrayed Jesus to the Sanhedrin.
• Saint Peter: Denied Jesus three times.
• John the Apostle: The apostle to whom Jesus entrusted his mother.
• Mary Magdalene: Recognized Jesus after the resurrection when He called her name.
• Thomas the Apostle: Recognized Jesus after the resurrection by touching the wounds of Christ.
• Pontius Pilate: Believed Jesus was innocent but still decided to execute Him.
• Simon of Cyrene: Helped Jesus carry His cross.
• Disciples on the Road to Emmaus: Recognized Jesus after the resurrection in the breaking of the bread.
• Caiaphas: The high priest who accused Jesus of blasphemy.

B. Events in Jesus’ Passion, Death, & Resurrection

• Entry into Jerusalem: Jesus entered Jerusalem on

From a theological perspective, the Catholic Church is understood as a church because it reflects the essential characteristics of Christian community. One key characteristic is Koinonia, which means communion or fellowship.

Koinonia: Communal Unity

The Catholic Church forms a visible community of believers united in faith, sacraments, and leadership. In Aotearoa New Zealand, this is seen through parish communities, dioceses, and national coordination by the New Zealand Catholic Bishops Conference. Catholics gather together not only for worship but also to support one another spiritually and socially, demonstrating strong communal unity.

Kerygma: Proclaiming the Gospel

Another important characteristic is Kerygma (Didache), which refers to proclaiming...

Sufism: A Soft Interpretation of Islam?

Sufism is broadly described as the intensification of Islamic faith and practice, representing the tendency among Muslims to strive for a personal engagement with the Divine Reality. This essay examines whether Sufism provides a "soft" interpretation of Islam by focusing on its core practices, specifically Dhikr (remembrance of God).

The Foundation of Sufi Practice

Adherents of Sufism follow the five pillars of Islam just as other practicing Muslims do. They declare faith in one God, Allah, and Muhammad as His messenger, pray five times a day, give to charity, fast, and perform the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Sufism is not a separate sect of Islam, but rather a stream of interpretation emphasizing the interior...

Visitations of Angels

In both Matthew's and Luke's Gospels, angels play a crucial role in announcing the birth of Jesus. In Matthew's Gospel, the magi visit the Christ child, symbolizing his status as a king and the true Messiah for the Jewish audience. In Luke's Gospel, shepherds visit the Christ child, representing the marginalized Greek gentiles.

Parable of the Weeds

The parable of the weeds among the wheat, found in Matthew's Gospel, illustrates the coexistence of good and evil in the world. The weeds represent sinners, while the wheat represents the righteous. God, as the farmer, allows both to grow until the harvest, which symbolizes judgment day.

Genealogy of Jesus

The genealogies of Jesus in Matthew's and Luke's Gospels serve different purposes....