Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Philosophical Perspectives on the Human Being

Monism

Monism posits that the human being is a unitary entity. Within this view, there are two opposing perspectives:

• Behavioral Monism: Human action, including responses to external stimuli, is the primary focus of study.
• Reductive Monism: All mental states are ultimately neurophysiological states.

Functionalism

Functionalism suggests that mental processes are not defined by their physical substance (like neurons) but by the function they perform, such as computing or thinking.

Emergentism

Emergentism offers a synthesis of monism and dualism. It proposes that mental states emerge from physical states but possess properties that are distinct from them.

Personalism

This view emphasizes the unity of the human... Continue reading "Human Behavior: Philosophical and Psychological Foundations" »

Understanding Conflict

A conflict is a situation of confrontation between people who have different ideas regarding a particular issue. A conflict differs from a dilemma. A conflict involves a disagreement between individuals or groups, while a dilemma involves a difficult personal decision.

Common Causes of Labor Disputes

• Causes arising in relations between individuals, groups, or organizations:
  • Unclear distribution of work
  • Differences in income or desires
  • Differences in values and beliefs
  • Personal confrontations
• Causes related to decision-making:
  • Need to make a difficult decision

Types of Conflict

By Number of People Affected

• Individual: Conflict between two people.
• Collective: Conflict between a group of employees and the company.

By Subject Matter

• Legal:

Generating Research Ideas

• Observation or personal experience
• Reformulation of ideas or beliefs based on new information or knowledge
• Knowledge derived from previous research
• Failure in applying known techniques for problem-solving
• Unexpected findings
• Follow-up to previous studies
• Adaptation or update of existing concepts
• Relating problems across different disciplines
• Need to define new objects of study

Critical Analysis in Research

When conducting critical analysis, consider the following:

• Assessing the type of design used in the study (e.g., qualitative, case-control, cohort, cross-sectional)
• Characteristics of included participants (e.g., race, geography, general medical history, comorbidities)
• Adherence to protocols
• Monitoring procedures
• Bias (e.g., studies

Challenges in Interviewing Marginalized Groups

A clear case involves particularly marginalized groups: criminals, prostitutes, drug addicts, people with stigmatized diseases, people experiencing homelessness, etc. Even when the researcher has some notion about certain places where they can locate some of these potential respondents, they must not forget the high degree of volatility or mobility of these groups. If we can establish a good relationship with any of them, we may be on the right track. Through their influence, we can get new elements for our sample. This is known as the "snowball effect." The first interviewees give us information that will permit the location of other individuals likely to swell our "sample." And these, in turn,... Continue reading "In-Depth Interviews: Advantages, Disadvantages, and Best Practices" »

Evolutionary Psychology and Adolescent Development

Evolutionary psychology deals with the psychological changes that occur during life and analyzes how the human being passes through several stages to adulthood.

Objectives of Adolescence

1. Develop cognitive and emotional characteristics (abstract thought and self-awareness).
2. Build a personal identity.
3. Acquire social skills.

Youth Culture Characteristics

1. New forms of communication.
2. Individualization.
3. Body image assessment.
4. Cult of image.
5. Sensitivity.
6. Consumerism.
7. Nomadism.

Features of Formal Thought

1. Openness to the world.
2. Logical thinking.
3. Possibility of hypothetico-deductive thinking.
4. Egocentric thinking.

Beliefs and Irrational Thoughts

Beliefs are useful illusions that allow us to manage our experiences. Irrational... Continue reading "Understanding Adolescent Psychology: Key Stages & Characteristics" »

Classification of Journalistic Genres

Journalistic genres can be broadly categorized based on their primary focus:

• Informational: This genre sticks strictly to facts, without expressing judgment or opinion. Examples include news reports, factual interviews, and objective reports.
• Hybrid: Combines factual information with the reporter's views or interpretations. Examples include columns and chronicles.
• Opinion-Based: Expresses a specific point of view or opinion on an event or news. Examples include articles and editorials.

Understanding the Interview Process

An interview consists of a conversation between a reporter and an interviewee, conducted to gather information or opinions of public interest.

Interview Classifications by Alex Cox

Alex Cox categorizes... Continue reading "Essential Journalistic Genres and Interview Approaches" »

Defining Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning is a significant process in establishing a substantive and non-arbitrary relationship between the content to be learned and what the learner already knows:

• Substantive: The content can be expressed by the learner in their own words without losing its meaning.
• Non-Arbitrary: The content can be linked by the learner to their prior knowledge, connecting the new information with existing preconceptions.

Requirements for Meaningful Learning

1. Potentially Significant Materials

   Materials must be relatable to some previous cognitive structure, encouraging substantive and non-arbitrary interaction, and possessing logical significance.

2. Appropriate Learner's Cognitive Structure

   This is the set of concepts an individual

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, meaning the fragmentation of cognitive and emotional capacities, was described by Breuler in 1911. It typically emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood, affecting individuals of both sexes.

Symptoms

• Social Isolation: Difficulty with interpersonal relationships, often leading to withdrawal.
• Thought Disruption: Fragmented and distorted thinking, often perceived as absurd by others.
• Disturbed Perceptions: Experiences of hallucinations, which can be auditory, visual, or kinesthetic.
• Inappropriate Emotions and Behavior: Living in an unrealistic world, experiencing detachment from one's body and personality, and exhibiting apathetic emotional responses.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia and bulimia are common eating disorders.... Continue reading "Mental Health and Well-being: Understanding and Addressing Challenges" »

Human Perception: Disorders and Mechanisms

Disorders of Perception

• Hallucinations: The perception of an object that does not exist, which the subject believes they see. These are misperceptions with no basis in reality. The subject cannot avoid them, and they become part of their life.
• Hallucinosis: The subject perceives an object that does not exist in reality but is able to recognize that it is not real.
• Pareidolia: The subject perceives distorted objects from reality through imagination. There are imaginative components in this pathology.
• Illusions: An object from reality is perceived in a distorted, garbled, or different way. These false perceptions are based on specific characteristics of the stimulus.
  • Geometric Illusions: Some aspects of a

Understanding Suicidal Behavior

Suicide is a complex issue with a range of behaviors and underlying factors. It's crucial to understand the different aspects of suicidal behavior to effectively identify and support individuals at risk.

Definitions:

• Suicide: An individual's death is intentional.
• Suicide Attempt: An attempt is made, but death does not occur.
• Suicidal Ideation: Thoughts or planning of suicide.
• Suicide Threat: Verbalizing the intention to kill oneself; this is a significant risk factor.
• Suicidal Gesture: Exhibiting some suicidal ideation.
• Passive Suicide: Displacement of responsibility, for example, a hunger strike.
• Attempted Suicide: Suicidal intent exists, but the method fails.
• Completed Suicide: Death is achieved.
• Extended or Mass Suicide: