Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Attachment Theory: Key Authors and Concepts

Key authors in attachment theory include John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Mary Main.

John Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Bowlby posited attachment as a fundamental human need, essential for survival yet relatively independent of other basic needs. Attachment is a biologically based motivational system that ensures an infant's proximity to a specific, preferred human being.

It is structured through interactive experiences, where communication precedes symbolic representation, evolving into affective contact. The attachment bond is directed towards a specific, differentiated, and preferred person. It seeks proximity and contact, generating anxiety when this desire is threatened.

The attachment system activates... Continue reading "Attachment Theory Explained: Bowlby, Ainsworth, Styles" »

Heredity and Environment

Individuals who do not conform to societal rules face sanctions. This document explores offender classifications and the psychological theories behind criminal behavior.

Classification of Offenders

Characterologic Types

Defined Offenders

• Mentally Ill
• Alcoholics
• Substance Abusers
• Feeble-minded

Undefined Offenders

• Casual
• Circumstantial

Biological Types - Inheritance

• Predominant Constitution (Anthropology)
• Influence of Surroundings

Psychiatry

Sigmund Freud, the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, explored the human mind. He divided the mind into three areas:

• The Unconscious: Stores traumas, negative experiences, and parental influences.
• The Subconscious: Governs daily life and work, modulated by education.
• The Conscious: Handles everyday

The Pervasiveness of Interviews in Modern Society

Interviews have become deeply ingrained in our society, shaping how we gather information, conduct research, and interact with the world around us. From political polling to market research, educational assessments to healthcare consultations, interviews play a crucial role in understanding individuals' perspectives, experiences, and knowledge. Even the media utilizes interviews extensively, contributing to their widespread presence in popular culture.

The Qualitative Interview in Social Research

Within social research, the qualitative interview holds a prominent position, employed by both positivist (quantitative) and interpretive (qualitative) researchers. While their specific objectives may... Continue reading "Qualitative Interviews: A Deep Dive" »

Standard Academic Abbreviations and Citation Terms

A, AA:

Author, authors.

V V. AA:

Several authors.

Art, cit:

Article cited.

Ca.:

Circa (About, around).

Cf., Cf.:

Confer (Compare).

Al., Et al.:

Et alii (And collaborators/others).

Dir:

Director, directed.

ed., eds.:

Edition, editor(s).

fl.:

Floruit (Flourished).

ibid.:

Ibidem (In the same place).

idem:

The same.

loc. cit.:

Loco citato (In the location cited).

m:

Mortuus (Dead).

n:

Natus (Born).

OC:

Opera Omnia (Complete works).

op. cit.:

Opere citato (In the work cited).

PASS:

Passim (In diverse places).

pseud:

Pseudonym.

suppl:

Supplement.

Research Tools and Data Collection Methods

Minimum Criteria for Effective Question Design

These criteria ensure the quality and reliability of responses from participants:

1. The question is necessary

What is Sociology? A Different Approach to Reality

Sociology is a different and unusual way to approach reality and ask questions about it. It forces us to think differently, questioning everything, even established truths. It provides tools and information that compel us to reflect on things we normally overlook.

Fundamental Rules of Sociological Inquiry

1. The way things are is not necessarily how I would like them to be.
2. Things are as they are, but they are not what they seem. "Appearances are deceptive."
3. The way things are might be different. Things are not eternal; they vary.

Core Principles of Sociology

1. What is defined as real has real consequences in social life.
2. We spend time putting labels on others ("The labels say more about the tagger than

1 Motor Skills Research

Basic motor skills consolidate, refine, and apply to various motor learning processes. This improves motor tasks, yielding strength, speed, endurance, agility, balance, and coordination. Maturity and effectiveness are seen in inception tasks, breaks, reception, beating, and kicking.

• These are distinct factors of physical fitness.
• Differences between boys and girls are increasingly less apparent.
• Improvement in perceptual-cognitive mechanisms (reaction time, decision making, attention, perception, etc.) is observed.
• Differences found between sexes are often due to socialization and expectations, but the potential for motor learning is equal for both sexes.
• Physical qualities evolve as a result of biological factors and training.

Motivation Theories in Human Resources

Motivation refers to the combination of reasons that lead a person to adopt a particular behavior. A core function of leadership is understanding what motivates employees to ensure they perform their tasks with interest, effectiveness, and diligence.

There are various theories attempting to explain individual motivation. None of them can fully explain human behavior in its entirety.

Broadly speaking, theories of motivation can be classified into two main groups: content theories and process theories.

Content Theories of Motivation

Content theories, also known as theories of satisfaction, aim to determine what motivates people to work. These reasons can be found both within each person and in their work environment.... Continue reading "Understanding Employee Motivation: Maslow and Herzberg Theories" »

Freudian Ego Defense Mechanisms

Ego defense mechanisms are strategies used to manage anxiety and resolve conflicts that arise when the ego must reconcile the demands of the id, the superego, and reality.

• Repression: Isolates, removes, or keeps away sexual desires or painful and unacceptable thoughts.
• Regression: Returning to previous, often obsolete stages of development.
• Isolation: Separating the emotional affect from a traumatic memory, isolating what remains united in reality.
• Projection: Attributing to others what one desires or feels but finds unacceptable to the superego.
• Sublimation: Channels a desire that is otherwise unacceptable into a socially accepted activity.

Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Psychosexual development refers... Continue reading "Freud's Core Concepts: Defense Mechanisms and Psychosexual Stages" »

2. Group Dynamics and Sex Differences

Motor skills improve with age, with children responding positively to friends and peers around age 7. Motor and gestural competition influences group position. Some societies emphasize male motor energy, while others highlight female aesthetic and rhythmic movement. Although attitudes are changing, progress is slow.

3. School, Media, and Motor Development

School materials should not allow motor development to occur randomly. Younger children should receive varied and diverse opportunities. Mass media, especially TV, greatly influence young people through vicarious learning. The ability to explore space and materials impacts motor skills. Materials with changeable characteristics encourage diverse actions.... Continue reading "Motor Development: Group Dynamics, Media Influence, and Assessment" »

Associative Learning

According to psychologists Hilgard and Marquis, learning reflects a stable behavioral change that allows living organisms to adapt to their environment. This means changing or acquiring a new, stable behavior that aids in environmental adaptation. The initial explanations of how we learn come from:

Reflexology or Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov, a key figure in this field, conducted the famous "Pavlov's Dog" experiment. He aimed to demonstrate how humans and animals learn. He placed a capsule in the dog's mouth to collect saliva. When presented with food (an unconditioned stimulus), the dog's unconditioned response was to salivate. Pavlov then paired the food with a sound (a bell). After several repetitions, the dog... Continue reading "Associative Learning, Memory, and Instinctive Behavior" »