Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Sociology as a Science

Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relations, and the functioning of social structures, groups, institutions, and social actions.

Principles of the Marxist Paradigm

1. Law of Universal Interaction: Everything is interconnected, and society consists of interrelated elements.
2. Law of Contrary Unity: Everything is in constant transformation and conflict, generating permanent investigation into social phenomena within their context.
3. Law of Spiral Development: The new integrates and perfects the old without destroying it, leading to continuous development.

Difficulties in Studying and Delimiting the Object of Sociology

1. Reflexivity: We are both the subject and object of study, making it challenging to maintain objectivity.

Thought: A Comprehensive Exploration

Definition of Thought

Thought is the psychic process by which representations of abstract objects, phenomena, or events of reality are formed in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning.

Key Concepts

• Image: Virtual representations formed by all human beings from conception, relating to the rational, subjective, and inner processes of knowing, understanding, judging, and reasoning about objectives and actions.
• Language: The function of expressing thought in written form for communication and understanding between human beings.
• Thought: A rational, objective, and external psychological phenomenon derived from thinking to solve everyday problems.

The thought process is a means of planning and action to overcome... Continue reading "Understanding Thought Processes and Their Significance" »

Memory: Transformations Over Time

Memory refers to the transformations that occur in information over time. From the multi-store model, it is understood that memory is a complex and active system working with multiple interconnected components.

• Recording Information: Information is perceived and encoded.
• Storing Information: The encoded information is stored using multifunctional matrices selected by the individual.
• Retrieving Information: Information is retrieved from memory based on the store in which it was processed.

Three Systems of Information Fixation

1. Sensory Memory

   Information in sensory memory disappears within approximately one second.

2. Short-Term Memory

   Information in short-term memory fades within approximately 20 seconds.

3. Long-Term Memory

   Information

Sensation vs. Perception

1. What is the difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation occurs when a sense organ detects a concrete stimulus. Perception occurs when the brain integrates these stimuli, making the individual aware of the sensation. Perception is the processing of information from stimuli.

Sensory Integration

2. Summarize sensory integration.

Sensory integration is the process of combining information from the senses to create meaning. This is essential for a child to understand the world.

Parker's Conclusions

3. What is Parker's (1991) conclusion regarding perception, sensation, and attention?

Parker asserts that perception, sensation, and attention are sufficiently developed at birth to enable interaction between mother and... Continue reading "Sensation, Perception, and Cognitive Development: Key Concepts" »

UK Family Structure and Characteristics

• Monogamy and Serial Monogamy: The British are monogamous and practice serial monogamy, meaning one can have no more than one consecutive spouse or one husband/wife at a time.
• Romantic Love Basis: The family is based on the idea of romantic love in Britain, which has become naturalized (considered normal).
• Patrilineal and Neolocal: Families are typically patrilineal (the father passes the surname to children) and neolocal (the married couple moves to a detached house away from their two families). (Contrast with Matrilineal: surname by female line; Matrilocal: near the bride's parents; Patrilocal: near the groom's parents or father's home).

Family Model Evolution and Diversity

Family models show evolution and... Continue reading "UK Family Structure and Social Dynamics" »

Understanding Socialization: Human Development

Definition of Socialization

Socialization is the fundamental process by which individuals integrate into a community and become active participants. It involves the acquisition and internalization of rules, principles, and customs of the culture in which we live. This assimilation allows us to identify with our group and feel like true members. Through socialization, we gain essential knowledge about those around us and experience the emotional bonds necessary for a rich and fulfilling life.

Our culture and personality are shaped solely through socialization. Thanks to this process, we enjoy a common ground that unites us, greatly fostering our capacity for empathy and the ability to feel understood... Continue reading "The Essence of Socialization: Human Development & Integration" »

Sigmund Freud: Life, Theory, and Impact

Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia (now Příbor, Czech Republic). At the age of four, his family moved to Vienna, where he would later begin his studies, initially focusing on medicine and then specializing in psychiatry. Freud developed a profound interest in understanding human behavior. In 1885, he moved to Paris to further his studies, where he met Dr. Jean-Martin Charcot, who introduced him to the technique of hypnosis. A year later, upon returning to Vienna, Freud briefly collaborated with Josef Breuer, a psychiatrist. In 1938, with the rise of Hitler and due to his Jewish heritage, Freud was forced to emigrate to London, where he resided until his death. Freud was convinced that many widely... Continue reading "Sigmund Freud: Core Ideas in Psychoanalysis" »

Notions of Psychology

Definition: Etymologically, the word psychology is of Greek origin, derived from the substantive psyche = soul, and logos = reason, science, pensamiento. Originally, the "object of study is the soul."

Conceptual Definition: Psychology is the science of the mind and its processes.

Importance of Psychology Today

Today, psychology has experienced a major development and expansion. As a science that studies man, applications can be found in any field of human activity.

Its history dates back to the era of ancient Greece. Aristotle wrote a philosophical treatise entitled "About the Soul," but it is from the nineteenth century, according to positivist principles, that it has experienced rapid development.

"Positivism is a philosophical... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: Concepts and Fields" »

Memory: The ability to record, store, and recall experiences (information, ideas, images, feelings). It is a major human function resulting from complex connections between neurons. These connections allow humans to process past situations. Memories begin when an efficient neuronal circuit strengthens the synapse.

Basic Principles:
- Encoding: Converting information into a storable and retrievable form.
- Storage: The capacity to retain information over time.
- Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Types of Memory:
* Sensory Memory: Retains information for 1-2 seconds until processed. For example, a flash of light allows us to be aware of visual sensory memory. We see things instantly, then study the image left behind. The two most important... Continue reading "Human Memory: Types, Functions & Processes" »

Durkheim's Suicide: A Sociological Theory

Introduction

Sociology aims to develop theories about social reality through a set of logically integrated, mutually causal propositions with a minimum degree of validity. These theories propose causal explanations for the phenomena they address. Durkheim's work on suicide, published in 1897, exemplifies a middle-range theory. He examined a limited phenomenon—suicide—and interpreted it sociologically.

Durkheim's Approach

For a sociological interpretation, Durkheim excluded individual psychological elements and extrasocial influences related to suicide. He also disregarded factors like "suggestibility" and "imitation." He argued that the causes of suicidal tendencies within a society reside in the... Continue reading "Durkheim's Suicide: A Sociological Perspective" »