Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Figurative Language

Figurative language allows speakers and writers to communicate meanings that differ in various ways from what they literally say, especially to express ideas that are difficult to communicate using literal language and to express thoughts in a compact and vivid manner.

Most Common Forms of Figurative Language

• Metaphor: A comparison between ideas from different domains, which can be explicit, as in the case of a simile.
• Metonymy: A salient part of a single knowledge domain is used to represent or stand for the entire domain.
• Idioms: A speaker’s meaning cannot be derived from an analysis of the words’ typical meanings.
• Proverbs: Speakers express widely held moral beliefs or social norms.
• Irony: A speaker’s meaning is usually,

Milgram Obedience Experiment

Stanley Milgram designed an experiment to study how direct commands influence behavior, focusing on obedience – the act of responding to commands. He sought to answer the question: "Under what social conditions are people more likely to obey?"

The experiment involved an authority figure instructing participants to administer electric shocks to a "learner" for incorrect answers. While most people predicted they would stop upon the learner expressing pain, the reality was different. Even with complaints from the learner, most participants obeyed the experimenter's directives, such as "please continue."

Several factors increased obedience: the authority figure's perceived status, their proximity to the participant,... Continue reading "Classic Psychology Experiments and Big 5 Personality Traits" »

Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory

Four Main Factors Influencing Career Choice

• Genetic Influences
• Environmental Conditions and Events
• Learning Experiences
• Task Approach Skills

Foundation of Krumboltz's Career Theory

Krumboltz’s theory of career decision making and development was based on Social Learning principles.

Parsons's Trait and Factor Theory

Purpose of Parsons's Theory of Occupational Choice

The purpose is to match careers to the talents, skills, and personality of a client.

Role of Assessments in Parsons's Theory

Assessments are necessary to gather the client’s talents, skills, likes, dislikes, and personality. Once this information is gathered, it can be used to help identify jobs or careers for which the client would be a perfect fit.

Ginzberg'

Literal Versus Nonliteral Communication

A: Fancy a whisky?

B: I am a muslim.

B explicitly communicates I AM A FOLLOWER OF THE MUSLIM RELIGION.

B implicitly communicates I DON’T FANCY A WHISKY (BECAUSE IT’S ALCOHOLIC AND MUSLIMS DON’T DRINK ALCOHOL).

The more implicit communication is, the more risky it is. If you say “No, thank you” it’s easier to understand than if you say “I am a muslim”. So... Why engage in implicit communication at all? Needless to say, on many occasions one would not be able to provide the same quality and quantity of information unless one chose an implicit utterance.

Disambiguation

- Retired priest may marry Bruce Springsteen. Senses:

1. A retired priest may perform Bruce’s wedding ceremony
2. A retired priest may

Innermost Regions of the Brain

Innermost regions of the brain are responsible for the basic involuntary functions, while outer regions of the brain are conscious and high-order thinking. The outer layer responsible for these higher functions is called the cortex.

Brain Stem

Base of the brain, it is attached to the spinal cord. The brain stem controls our heartbeat.

Thalamus

Above the brain stem. It receives all the sensory information from our senses (except smell) and sends it to other parts of the brain to process the data.

Cerebellum

Behind the brain stem. It coordinates movement like walking and plays a role in non-verbal learning and memory.

Visual Cortex

Located in the back of the brain. It receives and processes visual information.

Frontal Lobe

General... Continue reading "Understanding the Innermost Regions of the Brain and Its Functions" »

T1/2: Public Relations (PR)

What is PR?

PR encompasses the relationships an organization cultivates to establish, promote, and maintain mutual understanding with its public. These relationships foster globalization and international exchanges, aiming to align the organization's objectives with the public interest.

Why is PR Important?

1. Vital for Outreach: PR is crucial for connecting with your target audience.
2. Reputation Management: PR helps build and maintain a positive reputation for your company.
3. Community Building: PR creates allies and advocates within the community.
4. Attracting Talent: PR can improve the quality of student and applicant pools.
5. Demonstrating Impact: PR showcases your organization's impact and results to funding agencies.
6. Enhancing

Behavioral Measurement Techniques

Understanding and accurately measuring behavior is fundamental in behavior analysis. These techniques allow for systematic data collection and analysis.

Continuous Measurement

Continuous measurement involves recording every instance of a behavior as it occurs over time, providing a complete picture of its occurrence.

• Frequency

  The total count of how many times a behavior occurred. Example: A client left their seat 5 times.

• Rate

  The ratio of the count of a behavior per observation time. Example: 4 kicks per 5 minutes equals 0.80 kicks per minute, or 80%.

• Duration (Temporal Extent)

  The total extent of time a behavior occurs. Example: Adding the seconds of total extent (35+26+24+65+30) equals 180 seconds, which is 3 minutes.

Types of Employment Tests

Understanding the various types of employment tests is crucial for effective candidate evaluation and successful hiring. These assessments help organizations identify individuals with the right skills, abilities, and personality traits for specific roles.

Assessment Centers

Assessment centers are designed to measure many different types of job-related skills and abilities. They are often used to assess interpersonal skills, communication skills, planning and organizing, and analytical skills. Typically, an assessment center consists of exercises that reflect job content and the types of problems faced on the job.

Biographical Data

The content of biographical data instruments varies widely, and may include areas such as... Continue reading "Key Employment Tests for Successful Hiring" »

Understanding Mental Disorders

Significant impairments in psychological functioning are called mental disorders. These psychological or behavioral syndromes occur in response to the distress or disability that a particular event provokes (SHAPSE, 2008) and affect diverse features of someone’s behavior or personality depending on the brain area damaged or the environment the patient is surrounded by (Garety, Kuipers, Fowler, Freeman & Bebbington, 2001). Mental illnesses are caused by maladaptive or dysfunctional traits or by the presence of psychological stressors (APA, 2013).

The World Health Organization (2001) announced that a high percentage of people worldwide will suffer from some mental disorders or brain conditions at some point... Continue reading "Understanding Mental Disorders: Types, Causes, and Impact" »