Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Thought: A Comprehensive Exploration

Definition of Thought

Thought is the psychic process by which representations of abstract objects, phenomena, or events of reality are formed in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning.

Key Concepts

• Image: Virtual representations formed by all human beings from conception, relating to the rational, subjective, and inner processes of knowing, understanding, judging, and reasoning about objectives and actions.
• Language: The function of expressing thought in written form for communication and understanding between human beings.
• Thought: A rational, objective, and external psychological phenomenon derived from thinking to solve everyday problems.

The thought process is a means of planning and action to overcome... Continue reading "Understanding Thought Processes and Their Significance" »

Memory: Transformations Over Time

Memory refers to the transformations that occur in information over time. From the multi-store model, it is understood that memory is a complex and active system working with multiple interconnected components.

• Recording Information: Information is perceived and encoded.
• Storing Information: The encoded information is stored using multifunctional matrices selected by the individual.
• Retrieving Information: Information is retrieved from memory based on the store in which it was processed.

Three Systems of Information Fixation

1. Sensory Memory

   Information in sensory memory disappears within approximately one second.

2. Short-Term Memory

   Information in short-term memory fades within approximately 20 seconds.

3. Long-Term Memory

   Information

Sensation vs. Perception

1. What is the difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation occurs when a sense organ detects a concrete stimulus. Perception occurs when the brain integrates these stimuli, making the individual aware of the sensation. Perception is the processing of information from stimuli.

Sensory Integration

2. Summarize sensory integration.

Sensory integration is the process of combining information from the senses to create meaning. This is essential for a child to understand the world.

Parker's Conclusions

3. What is Parker's (1991) conclusion regarding perception, sensation, and attention?

Parker asserts that perception, sensation, and attention are sufficiently developed at birth to enable interaction between mother and... Continue reading "Sensation, Perception, and Cognitive Development: Key Concepts" »

UK Family Structure and Characteristics

• Monogamy and Serial Monogamy: The British are monogamous and practice serial monogamy, meaning one can have no more than one consecutive spouse or one husband/wife at a time.
• Romantic Love Basis: The family is based on the idea of romantic love in Britain, which has become naturalized (considered normal).
• Patrilineal and Neolocal: Families are typically patrilineal (the father passes the surname to children) and neolocal (the married couple moves to a detached house away from their two families). (Contrast with Matrilineal: surname by female line; Matrilocal: near the bride's parents; Patrilocal: near the groom's parents or father's home).

Family Model Evolution and Diversity

Family models show evolution and... Continue reading "UK Family Structure and Social Dynamics" »

Notions of Psychology

Definition: Etymologically, the word psychology is of Greek origin, derived from the substantive psyche = soul, and logos = reason, science, pensamiento. Originally, the "object of study is the soul."

Conceptual Definition: Psychology is the science of the mind and its processes.

Importance of Psychology Today

Today, psychology has experienced a major development and expansion. As a science that studies man, applications can be found in any field of human activity.

Its history dates back to the era of ancient Greece. Aristotle wrote a philosophical treatise entitled "About the Soul," but it is from the nineteenth century, according to positivist principles, that it has experienced rapid development.

"Positivism is a philosophical... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: Concepts and Fields" »

Memory: The ability to record, store, and recall experiences (information, ideas, images, feelings). It is a major human function resulting from complex connections between neurons. These connections allow humans to process past situations. Memories begin when an efficient neuronal circuit strengthens the synapse.

Basic Principles:
- Encoding: Converting information into a storable and retrievable form.
- Storage: The capacity to retain information over time.
- Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Types of Memory:
* Sensory Memory: Retains information for 1-2 seconds until processed. For example, a flash of light allows us to be aware of visual sensory memory. We see things instantly, then study the image left behind. The two most important... Continue reading "Human Memory: Types, Functions & Processes" »

Durkheim's Suicide: A Sociological Theory

Introduction

Sociology aims to develop theories about social reality through a set of logically integrated, mutually causal propositions with a minimum degree of validity. These theories propose causal explanations for the phenomena they address. Durkheim's work on suicide, published in 1897, exemplifies a middle-range theory. He examined a limited phenomenon—suicide—and interpreted it sociologically.

Durkheim's Approach

For a sociological interpretation, Durkheim excluded individual psychological elements and extrasocial influences related to suicide. He also disregarded factors like "suggestibility" and "imitation." He argued that the causes of suicidal tendencies within a society reside in the... Continue reading "Durkheim's Suicide: A Sociological Perspective" »

Human Needs Hierarchy

The hierarchy of human needs dictates that once needs at one level are satisfied, new needs and desires at a higher level emerge. These levels are:

1. Physiological Needs: Essential for survival and health.
2. Safety and Security: Reinsurance, protection, love, and stability.
3. Emotional Relationships: Membership and belonging.
4. Esteem: Self-help and the pursuit of exceeding performance.

Psychology's Purpose and Ethics

Psychology has human purposes and objectives, such as social welfare and quality of life. The profession is governed by a code of ethics designed to serve as a pattern of professional conduct. Psychologists respect and promote integrity in science.

Criminology and Forensic Psychology

Gross Hans's criminology suggests that... Continue reading "Human Needs Hierarchy, Psychology, and Disaster Levels" »

Understanding Innate Behaviors

Innate behaviors are fixed patterns to complex vital actions, which appeared during the formation or genesis of a species. The distinctive characteristics of these behaviors are:

1. Specific to the species.
2. Highly stereotyped.
3. Once initiated, they proceed to completion.
4. Not significantly learned.
5. Resistant to change.
6. Triggered by a specific stimulus.

Habituation and Sensitization: Non-Associative Learning

Although innate reflexes are unconditioned, they can serve as a basis for learning new reflexes. Learned patterns, however, cannot be fixed or conditioned. Habituation and sensitization are mechanisms that allow organisms to change their structures and functions through interaction with the environment. Habituation (H) and... Continue reading "Understanding Innate Behaviors, Learning, and Memory" »

Consciousness is a central fact of human existence, because without it, all other aspects of our life (perception, thought, emotion, etc.) are meaningless.

Characteristics of Consciousness

• Involves short-term memory.
• Is independent of sensory inputs (e.g., fantasizing).
• Requires focused attention.
• Has the ability to process alternative interpretations of complex or ambiguous data.
• Disappears and reappears during sleep (deep sleep to dreaming), at least in a changed or disjointed way.

Methods to Investigate Consciousness

• Observing and measuring the actions of an experimental subject, collecting reports of internal experience (e.g., heart rate, breathing, overall brain electrical activity).
• Investigating patients with brain injuries.

Waking vs. Dreaming