Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Three Substances in Descartes' Metaphysics

The Thinking Substance (Cogito)

In Descartes' philosophy, the starting point is the undeniable existence of the thinking self. He argues that even if one doubts everything, the very act of doubting proves that there is a thinking entity. This is the famous "Cogito, ergo sum" - "I think, therefore I am." The cogito, or the thinking self, is characterized by thoughts, ideas, and subjective representations. However, Descartes acknowledges that these internal experiences might not accurately reflect the external world. He grapples with the challenge of determining whether his ideas are mere imaginings or objective truths.

Descartes classifies ideas into three categories:

• Adventitious Ideas: These are images

Characteristics of Presocratic Thought

Presocratic philosophers lived before the sixth century BC, although some were contemporaries of Socrates.

Some characteristics of the Presocratics are:

1. They replace myths with logos.
2. Their thinking is called tragic thought because it functions as a system of opposites: day-night, hard-soft.
3. The universe is an organized whole (cosmos) that obeys certain necessary and immutable laws; it eliminates the arbitrariness of the gods.
4. Nature is dynamic and constantly moving (Heraclitus).

These thinkers have two main problems:

1. What is the constitutive principle of things?
   • The Monists think there is a single element that constitutes reality. For example, Thales of Miletus believed it was water, Anaximenes believed it was

Locke's Political Philosophy

Locke accepts the concept of the state of nature. However, his idea differs from Hobbes's. Locke believes that in the state of nature, individuals live together according to reason, without a common superior on Earth to judge between them. Conflicts, leading to a state of war, arise when force is used outside the bounds of right.

According to Locke, the state of nature is governed by a law, the law of nature. This law teaches that all individuals are equal and independent. This principle allows Locke to justify the existence of natural rights.

Locke also argued that humans have a strong inclination to live in society, leading him to assert that society is inherent in human nature. The first form of social grouping... Continue reading "John Locke's Political Philosophy" »

Defense Mechanisms When Sick

• Regression: The patient reverts to a less independent state, seeking comfort and support.
• Evasion: The patient avoids reality and creates a fantasy world.
• Aggression: The patient blames healthcare providers for their illness and expresses dissatisfaction.
• Reproach: The patient isolates themselves due to their illness.
• Disclaimer: The patient denies their illness and suppresses unpleasant thoughts or feelings.

This can be produced in three ways:

• Masochistic: The patient views illness as a just and deserved punishment.
• Dower: The patient feels absolved of responsibility and entitled to help from others.
• Hypochondriac: The patient exhibits excessive worry about their health.

Appropriate Reactions to Disease

• Reaction of overcoming

Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset

The Theme of Life

Similarities

• Both **Ortega and Nietzsche** are situated within vitalism. For both, the absolute reality is *life*. Life is the radical fact of the universe and the privileged object of philosophy. Against rationalism, the absolute is life.
• Both also agree in rejecting the static conception of reality and are inclined towards a dynamic conception to understand the fundamental reality and constant flux that is life.

Differences

• The concept of life has distinct nuances in Ortega and Nietzsche. In Nietzsche, life has a more biological character, and its essence is the will to power. In Ortega, life has a certain biological nature, but throughout his thought, a more biographical character is dominant. Life

Locke's Theory of Knowledge

Locke's theory begins with the rejection of rationalist nativism. He argues against the existence of innate ideas or knowledge in the understanding. If such innate ideas existed, all individuals would possess them from the beginning of their existence, but this is not something we observe.

The understanding is more like a blank slate (tabula rasa).

Classes of Concepts and Ideas

When speaking of "idea", Locke refers to everything we know or perceive.

• Simple Ideas: These ideas cannot be broken down into others. They are necessarily imposed on the mind, which remains passive. They can be classified as:
  • Ideas of Sensation: These originate from outer experience. They are impressions produced on our external senses by external

Contemporary Philosophical Concepts

Atheism: Denying the Divine

Atheism is a philosophical position that denies the existence of God. Several prominent thinkers have contributed to this perspective:

• Ludwig Feuerbach on God as Human Creation

  Ludwig Feuerbach states that the idea of God is a human creation. Humans form the idea of God to escape the miseries of life. The idea of God does not guarantee a realized life; instead, it promises abundance and a world of happiness, projected into a future life, rather than transforming the real world.

• Karl Marx: Religion as the Opium of the People

  Karl Marx famously stated, "God is a human creation." He viewed religion as "the opium of the people." For Marx, religion represented:

  • An ideal unrealized.
  • A barrier

Human Relationships and Society

Human beings are social creatures, connecting with others and sharing their experiences. Positive relationships are crucial for well-being and are built on respect, solidarity, and harmonious coexistence. In modern societies, the family is the fundamental social unit, essential for personal growth and providing affection and childcare support. Open communication and family involvement are vital.

Citizenship and Rights

Citizenship is both a right and a responsibility, contributing to a positive and just society. It represents the rights and duties of individuals within a state, focusing on rights held by people as human beings. In 1957, the Treaty of Rome recognized the right of free movement within the European

Morals and Ethics

Moral: It is a dimension of individuals and societies according to which we are able, within certain limits, to choose how to guide our lives as persons.

Moral: Lived and Thought

Morality is what people and societies live daily. Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality.

Morality concerns life; ethics is moral philosophy, which has to respond to the following three questions:

• A) What is morality?
• B) How is it founded?
• C) How does this apply to our daily lives?

What is Being Moral?

Morality is not a science but a dimension of people and societies. It is a "moral dimension" that requires a task: to acquire a habit, to forge a character from which to devise and plan one's own life, and to forge a good character.

Being moral... Continue reading "Morality and Ethics: Shaping Our Lives" »

Ancient Greek Philosophy: Early Thinkers and Concepts

Philosophy, derived from the Greek words 'philein' (love) and sophia (wisdom), saw its first recorded use in the 6th century BC by Pythagoras in Greece.

Milesian Philosophers: Seeking the First Principle

The Milesian philosophers, such as Anaximenes and Anaximander, sought the first principle of reality, known as the arche. Some believed, for instance, that water was the arche, and that all beings were endowed with life (hylozoism), and everything was full of gods. Anaximenes based his arche on air, while Anaximander proposed the apeiron (the unlimited or indefinite) as the fundamental principle.

Pythagorean Philosophy: Numbers and the Soul

The Pythagoreans also sought the arche, not in a single... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: Key Thinkers and Core Ideas" »