Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Monism and Dualism

Monism claims that there is no composition in human reality, so that death becomes the absolute limit of existence. Dualism argues that human beings are constituted by two kinds of reality: a material body and a spiritual body, the soul. These theories often view death as the separation of the components. In these cases, death is like a transit. There are a variety of conceptions about what happens to the soul after its separation from the body: from the possibility of achieving ultimate happiness to the belief in the need to purify the soul, incarnated successively in several bodies.

The Question of Evil

The term "theodicy" was introduced by Leibniz. From the etymological point of view, it refers both to the holiness of God... Continue reading "Monism, Dualism, Evil, and Science: Philosophical Perspectives" »

Cultural Evolution

From Biological to Cultural

Biological evolution continues in cultural evolution. "Culture" encompasses all human inventions transmitted through learning: language, beliefs, and more. Cultural evolution has advanced at a pace Darwinian processes cannot match. Unlike our biological history, cultural evolution is Lamarckian in nature.

The Process of Humanization

Humanization refers to all the changes in human life since the emergence of Homo sapiens, summarized as "culture." Humans are the only creatures capable of education. Education encompasses care during infancy, the discipline that shapes humanity, and finally, the transmission of culture. This creates a three-way relationship: child, pupil, and student.

Discipline distinguishes... Continue reading "Cultural Evolution and Humanization: A Journey Through Human Development" »

Narrative Time

The action takes place during the years 1939-1940, but there are some temporary setbacks (flashbacks) based on Andrea's memories of other stays in Barcelona, where she would spend summers at her grandparents' house on Aribau street. The narrator is situated in the recent past relative to the facts, in 1944. The period between February and September is when the novel was written.

The Postwar Novel

In the 1940s, the bleak post-war climate favored the culmination of literature committed to social problems. In Spain, there were two schools that had a significant impact on all literary genres: existentialism and neorealism. Existentialism questioned the meaning of human existence, and neorealism questioned social reality. Between 1940... Continue reading "Carmen Laforet's Nada: A Literary Analysis" »

Hume's Criticism of Causality

Criticism of the principle of causality is the cornerstone of Hume's philosophy. Rationalists considered causality a principle known clearly through reason. Descartes stated that the principle of causality allowed him to assert God's existence as the cause of the idea of infinity in his mind. Locke also used the principle of causality to accept the existence of external reality as the cause of our sensations and God's existence as the cause of the world and our own existence.

According to Hume, all arguments about matters of fact are based on cause and effect. Only through this relationship can we go beyond the evidence of our memory and senses. Furthermore, our notion of an ordered world would be impossible if we... Continue reading "Hume's Critique: Deconstructing Causality in Philosophy" »

Perspectives on Cultural Encounters

When meeting people from other cultures, even if we acknowledge that no one is inherently strange, differences can sometimes feel pronounced. Encounters with individuals outside our own social group can lead to certain behaviors:

• Ethnocentrism: An individual exhibiting this behavior elevates their own societal values, believing them to be unique and superior to those of other societies.
• Exoticism: This behavior involves idealizing another culture while devaluing one's own. It focuses on the perceived 'otherness' without necessarily valuing the culture authentically, often accompanied by self-criticism of one's own culture.
• Relativism: This perspective holds that all customs and values are equally valid within

Nietzsche's Ethics: A Foundation of Values

Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy presents a radical re-evaluation of traditional morality, identifying two fundamental types of valuation of life:

Master Morality

• Embodies a profoundly positive attitude towards life.
• Characterizes the active, creative individual who lives independently.
• Finds happiness within themselves, embracing life as it is and living with intensity.

Slave Morality

• Stems from a negative attitude towards life, viewing it as tragic and finite.
• Gives rise to a passive, weak, and cowardly disposition.
• Converts its own shortcomings into virtues, presenting them as achievements of freedom.

In this 'game' of defending certain values, the slave casts the master as 'evil' and themselves as 'good.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Ethics: Master, Slave, and the Übermensch" »

Ethics and Moral Conduct: Foundations of Morality

Ethics is a philosophical discipline that examines morality and seeks to provide its foundation. Moral conduct is behavior guided by rules and moral values, stemming from an understanding of norms and values that are conscientiously undertaken.

We conclude that a prerequisite for moral behavior is freedom. When behavior is contrary to laws, rigid nature, or uncontrollable instincts, it cannot be judged morally. Moral behavior, as it is freely chosen, can be judged or valued by others as good or bad. The difference is that in the latter case, we consider that the individual had the freedom to choose and decide.

Rawls's Theory of Justice: Justice as Fairness

Justice functions as a fundamental ethical... Continue reading "John Rawls's Justice as Fairness: Ethical Principles and Moral Conduct" »

For the Greek philosophers, the problem of physis is closely linked to movement. Aristotle is the first to make a systematic presentation on the problem of motion. He formulates in a clear way that mobility is the basic mode of reality. Nature is to say that natural things are in motion. To define physis, Aristotle distinguishes between natural beings (from the physis) and artificial things (which come from other causes). Natural beings have movement within themselves; every body has a natural place, and motion is identified with change (any type of change is movement, according to Aristotle).

Aristotle's physics begins with a critique of Parmenides, who stated that motion is irrational. Aristotle introduces two new concepts: there are two ways... Continue reading "Aristotle's Physics: Motion, Causation, and Change" »

Zarathustra's Core Teachings

Zarathustra, a character in Nietzsche's work, presents a dualistic doctrine. It speaks of the struggle between good and evil spirits, asserting that this conflict is the sole driving force behind all actions. Nietzsche interprets Zarathustra's work as a passage of moral metaphysics, contrasting it sharply with Christian civilization, which he views as its antithesis.

Nietzsche's Inversion of Values

According to Nietzsche, everything related to the human world has been assessed in opposition to life itself. He posits that traditional moral force stems from a "sick spirit." His goal is to re-evaluate and return values to life, thereby attempting to recover what he calls humanity's "original innocence."

The Concept of