Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's Critique of Christianity and the Death of God

This critique extends beyond superficial reflections. It focuses on four key points:

• Christianity is a series of principles, contradictions, and errors.
• It contributes to a false hope in the beyond, causing contempt for the world.
• Many followers of Christianity are inconsistent with their ideas and practices.

Nietzsche on Nihilism and the Will to Power

Nietzsche's concept of nihilism involves several aspects:

• It suppresses values that allow life to be free.
• It sets the stage for the Übermensch (Superman).
• The concept of Eternal Recurrence: Not merely a cosmological idea of factual repetition, but a defense of a determined future, achievable by few.
• It critiques restrictive moral rules that limit

Descartes' Concept of Substance

Descartes identified the first element of reality in the self as a thinking substance. He conceived clearly and distinctly that the 'I' did not need other things to exist, thus establishing his concept of substance. The self is real, and what is real is substance. Thinking substance is the primary substance identified, distinct from Aristotle's concept of substance as a substrate for attributes; for Descartes, it is a kind of substance conceived by reason.

Alongside thinking substances, Descartes posits God, identified through the attribute of infinity as the infinite substance. The definition of substance in its purest form belongs to God, for God alone needs no other thing to exist; God exists in Himself and... Continue reading "Descartes: Substance, Extension, and the Mechanistic World" »

Historical and Sociocultural Context of the Enlightenment in Germany

Kant, one of the most important figures of the 18th century, along with the American and French Revolutions, defined the Enlightenment as the mental attitude by which man decides to leave his self-imposed immaturity, using his reason without the guidance of another. The Encyclopedia was a key work of this period.

The German Enlightenment

The German Enlightenment had its peculiarities. There was an increase in population and a relative improvement in the economy (higher agricultural yields and the inception of industry). Germany was divided into small states with an almost feudal structure (nobility, bourgeoisie, peasants).

The state of Prussia stood out. After economic and... Continue reading "German Enlightenment: History, Society, and Philosophy" »

Faith and Reason: A Comprehensive Analysis

The relationship between faith and reason can be explored through several key points:

The Limits of Reason: The Role of Faith

Based on Aristotelian theory, our knowledge of the essence of material realities is derived through a bottom-up method, moving from the material to the immaterial. Consequently, our understanding of God remains imperfect and analogical. Reason, therefore, has limits in its capacity to fully comprehend God, the universe, and humanity. Faith provides insights beyond these limitations. This faith complements reason, aiding in the pursuit of perfect knowledge. As Aquinas stated, "Faith does not eliminate nature but perfects it." Faith and reason, therefore, need not be in conflict.... Continue reading "Understanding Faith and Reason: A Balanced Perspective" »

Commercial Contract Types Explained

Sales Contract

In a sales contract, one party agrees to deliver a specific item, and the other agrees to pay a certain price in money or a sign representing elements of the object.

Buying Considerations

The object of the sale must be lawful for trade, and this is determined legally. The price is the primary obligation of the buyer.

Obligations of Buyer and Seller

• Seller: Must deliver the item. This includes ensuring the buyer has legal and peaceful possession of the item sold and responding to hidden defects or flaws the item may have had (sanitation).
• Buyer: Must pay the agreed price.

Exchange Contract

An exchange contract is a contract transferring ownership in which each party agrees to transmit to the other an... Continue reading "Essential Business Agreement Types" »

Descartes' Method: Seeking Certainty in Knowledge

Descartes sought a method to make it impossible to mistake the false for the true, progressively leading to the knowledge of everything that can be known. This method has its foundation in reason, guaranteeing the right conduct of reason, and is accessible to all. Human knowledge can proceed from experience, but it can be tricky. You can see evil, hear evil, or be the victim of hallucinations. In knowledge gained through experience, the subject is responsive and behaves passively. There is a possibility of error.

So, human knowledge can also come from... deduction, which provides absolutely certain knowledge with no possibility of doubt. This is the procedure followed by mathematics, and which... Continue reading "Descartes' Method: Rules for Reasoning" »

Aristotle's Philosophy: Virtue, Ethics, and Happiness

Aristotle addresses the concept of virtue in his ethics as a means to achieve the highest good: happiness. He distinguishes between intellectual virtues, attained through the practice of contemplative life, and ethical virtues, cultivated through the habit of acting and aligning our behavior with the golden mean between two extremes—one of excess and one of deficiency.

Aristotle's View on Happiness and Perfection

Aristotle posits that virtue guarantees the enjoyment of happiness because every being achieves perfection within its kind. Happiness is derived from engaging in activities specific to one's nature. Given that human nature is defined by its specific form, the rational soul, a life... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Cosmology, and Knowledge" »

John Locke's Philosophical Contributions

Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology)

Locke, in his work, begins by demonstrating the absence of innate principles in the human mind. He argues that even the idea of God is not innate. Nativism, according to Locke, is a myth; no ideas or knowledge are given to humans prior to experience. To counter nativism, Locke proposes an alternative explanation through the development of mental sense via immediate experience (sensation and reflection).

The core hypothesis is that our mind comes into the world empty, a tabula rasa (blank slate), devoid of knowledge. For Locke, experience becomes the origin and foundation of all knowledge, which must ultimately be referred back to experience for confirmation.

Types of Ideas

Locke... Continue reading "John Locke: Empiricism, Knowledge, and Political Thought" »

Descartes

René Descartes, alongside Kant, is arguably the most important thinker in modern philosophy. Living in the 17th century and dividing his time between France, Holland, and Sweden, Descartes is considered the founder and greatest exponent of Rationalism. A fundamental concern of his thought was the construction of a robust philosophical method.

The basis of the Cartesian method, which, when applied to metaphysics, forms the foundation of knowledge, lies in mathematics (Descartes dedicated part of his work to this field). He concluded that only what can be reduced to mathematical motions can be truly understood. This highlights the importance Descartes placed on reason (as opposed to tradition, experience, or faith), which he identified... Continue reading "Introduction to Plato and Descartes" »