Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

David Hume

His Impact on Philosophy and the Critique of Causality

David Hume (1711-1776) is one of the most influential philosophers, and exerted a profound impact on Immanuel Kant. Among the most important aspects of his philosophy is his criticism of the principle of causality.

Limitations of Knowledge and Future Events

According to Hume, our knowledge of facts is limited to current and past impressions. We cannot have knowledge of future events because we cannot have impressions of an event that has not yet happened. However, in our daily lives, we constantly assume that certain events will occur in the future. For example, we place a container of water on the fire, expecting it to heat up. But if we initially only feel cold water over the flame,... Continue reading "David Hume's Critique of Causality: Impact on Philosophy" »

20th Century European Philosophy

Vitalism and Historicism

In the 20th century, two prominent schools of thought emerged in Europe: vitalism and historicism. Vitalism posited that the essence of reality transcends reason, while historicism emphasized the crucial role of history in human understanding. These trends significantly influenced the philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset, particularly his concepts of vital reason and historical reason. Thinkers during this period grappled with the complex relationship between knowledge and reality, with language often serving as a starting point for exploring existence.

The Influence of Krausism

The intellectual renewal movement spearheaded by Giner de los Ríos and the Free Institution of Education, known... Continue reading "20th Century European Philosophy: Vitalism, Historicism, and Ortega y Gasset" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Christian Religion

Nietzsche argues that Christian morality, which he considers 'vulgar,' originates from the concept of God. He posits that religion is born of fear, anguish, and impotence, and therefore, it needs no inherent truth.

Christianity, in Nietzsche's view, reversed the life-affirming values prevalent in ancient Greece and Rome. It invented an ideal, heavenly world, thereby despising the earthly one. The moral values promoted by Christians, he contends, encourage a 'petty' existence, fostering a flock subservient to God. This, for Nietzsche, makes Christian morality a mortal enemy of the Übermensch (Superman), a concept also touched upon by thinkers like Feuerbach.

Critique of Traditional Philosophy (Plato)

Traditional... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Radical Critique: Values, God, and the Übermensch" »

Accidental Values of Gender

Some nouns have alternating genders that refer not only to sex but also to other non-sexual characteristics. Pottier refers to this as dimensional gender, where the alternating male/female forms refer to size. For example:

• El jarro (the jug) / La jarra (the jar)
• El cesto (the basket) / La cesta (the basket)

In these cases, the feminine form often implies a larger size. Similarly, when referring to trees and their fruit, the masculine form often denotes the tree, while the feminine form denotes the fruit:

• El naranjo (the orange tree) / La naranja (the orange)

When referring to people, the feminine form often denotes the female counterpart. For example:

• El alcalde (the mayor) / La alcaldesa (the mayor's wife)

Gender of Proper

Plato: Philosophy Forged in Athenian Turmoil

Plato (428–347 BC) was born and lived during a period of great social and political turmoil resulting from the Peloponnesian Wars between the peoples of Attica (Athens) and the Peloponnese (Sparta). It was a time of political corruption, evident both during the period of the Thirty Tyrants, who staged a coup in 404 BC, and in the subsequent democratic period. Plato harshly criticized this democratic government, viewing it as an ignorant majority that brought mistaken beliefs to power.

Plato's Critique of Athenian Society

The injustices of oligarchy and the errors of democracy led Plato to seek a more rational and just form of governance. This critique of democracy and oligarchy is famously presented... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Athenian Turmoil, Cave Allegory, and the Academy" »

Immanuel Kant's First Definitive Article for Perpetual Peace

We present here a fragment of the "First Definitive Article for Perpetual Peace" authored by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). In this excerpt, the author presents the constitution that a state must have to achieve perpetual peace, along with its characteristics. This is the republican constitution, a constitution based on the principles of liberty, a single law imposed upon the subjects, and equal acceptance under the law by the state's citizens at a collective level. For Kant, this was the best civil constitution so that rights could be established within a state, thus leaving the state of nature and finally arriving at eternal peace. The author did not speak of perpetual peace as a utopia,... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Perpetual Peace and Philosophy" »

Descartes' Skepticism Towards Scholasticism

The starting point of René Descartes' philosophy is the disillusionment caused by traditional scholastic knowledge. He considered this knowledge entirely insecure, where everything was doubtful, and all issues presented a variety of conflicting opinions. This skepticism extended to philosophy in general and, consequently, to all sciences dependent on it, as none seemed to possess sufficiently secure foundations.

The Tree of Knowledge and the Quest for Certainty

Descartes envisioned knowledge as a unified "great tree," with metaphysics as its roots, physics as its trunk, and various sciences like medicine, mechanics, and morals as its branches. His fundamental objective was therefore to demolish the... Continue reading "Descartes' Quest for Certainty: Rebuilding Knowledge" »

Hobbes: The State of Nature

The state of nature, according to Hobbes, is the condition of humanity before the establishment of society. In this state, individuals exist in complete freedom and equality, unbound by laws or authority. Consequently, everyone possesses a right to everything, which effectively equates to possessing nothing, as there is no mechanism to enforce or protect individual rights. Driven by selfishness and a lack of restraint, individuals become a threat to one another ("homo homini lupus"), transforming the state of nature into a perpetual state of war and widespread insecurity. This condition impedes progress in all areas, including agriculture, industry, knowledge, and culture.

However, the instinct for self-preservation,... Continue reading "Hobbes vs. Locke: Contrasting Views on the State of Nature" »

The Fundamental Problems of Philosophy

Since the inception of philosophical writings, a recurring concern has been to determine the principles that make reality intelligible, and to question whether reality is ultimately reducible to something fundamental.

Metaphysical Perspectives on Reality

Spiritualism

Spiritualist metaphysics claims that the ultimate nature of reality is spiritual. This assertion is primarily motivated by the defense of the thesis that spiritual phenomena are irreducible to material explanations based on mechanical or organic laws governing natural events.

Sensationalism

A peculiar form of spiritualism is sensationalism, which reduces reality to so-called "sense data." It posits that perceptions are psychic reality and do not... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: Core Problems and Metaphysics" »

Hobbes and Rousseau: A Comparison

Hobbes: Human Nature and the Philosophy of Power

According to Hobbes, human nature is composed of two elements that determine political problems:

1. Natural Equality of Men: All men are created equal.
2. Scarcity of Goods: Men crave goods due to their needs, leading to competition.

Language is crucial for civil society and the state. Without language, there would be no state, civil society, peace agreements, or distinction from animals. Language makes man a citizen, highlighting his rationality. Reason remains constant in its purposes and means.

Analysis of Power

Hobbes opposes the optimistic view of natural law theorists who believe in man's natural inclination to sociability. The first law of nature leads to conflict... Continue reading "Hobbes and Rousseau: Natural Law, Sovereignty, and the Social Contract" »