Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Kant on Scientific Knowledge and Metaphysics

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant is concerned with determining the problem of knowledge and analyzing the possibility of metaphysics as a science, with the same rigor and accuracy that mathematics and physics had achieved at that time.

Kant understood metaphysics as the discipline inherited from previous philosophical traditions (such as medieval scholasticism or the rationalist school). It was considered the foundation and basis not only of all sciences but also of values, morality, politics, etc.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

Rationalists believed that the mind could know reality without the help of experience; the mind possessed innate principles.

On the other hand, empiricists believed that all knowledge... Continue reading "Kant's View on Science and Metaphysics" »

Settlement Concepts on Contract Completion

• Days worked this month.
• Proportion of uncollected bonuses.
• Leave not taken.
• Allowances, if any.
• In case of breach of the notice period, the amount corresponding to it.

Wage Concepts Retained

• Social Security contributions.
• Personal Income Tax (PIT).

Employment Contract Termination

Resignation

It is a termination of contract by the will of the worker without a cause that justifies it.

Abandonment by the Worker

The worker leaves the job with the intention to terminate the employment contract without notice.

Termination for Just Cause

The worker may request the termination of contract due to the employer's breach of contract.

(The employee must request the termination of employment at the Social Court and is entitled

Chapter III: Sections 11 & 12

11. Fundamental Certainty: Individual Imperfection and Community Perfection

This concept typified medieval consciousness, stemming from profound anthropological convictions.

Three texts from different eras demonstrate this harmony: St. Augustine, bridging the ancient and early medieval periods; Hugo of St. Victor, the Parisian philosopher and theologian; and St. Thomas Aquinas, who systematized thought in the late 13th century.

Hugo of St. Victor's Hierarchia presents a universitas where plurality reduces to unity. Grace, while operating on individuals, finds its essential territory in the universitas. The individual is situated within the ordered unit, with responsibility as an exercise, not an entitlement.

Augustine'... Continue reading "Individual Imperfection and Community Perfection in Medieval Thought" »

Understanding Moral, Legal, and Social Norms

In today's pluralistic society, the legitimacy of political power can only be configured as rational-legal. Procedures must be established to ensure the agreement of all members of society regarding rules of social order and rules of coexistence. There are different types of standards that guide the conduct of individuals in society:

• Moral rules have a universal requirement, indicating how anyone should behave if they want to behave humanly. Each person has to assume these rules consciously and freely, as they are binding in conscience. These rules are the area of morality.
• Legal standards are set by the authorities within each political community and are addressed to all inhabitants of the territory.

1. Origin of the Concept of Citizenship

1.1. A Standard Definition

Citizen: An inhabitant of ancient cities and a modern political and legal subject involved in governing the country. Citizenship appears to have the following features:

• Membership in a political community that resides permanently in a territory.
• The enjoyment of rights that must be protected by the city, including the possibility of participating in the work of government.

1.2. Citizenship in Greco-Roman Antiquity

The term "citizen" comes from the Latin civis, a word that shares the same root as civitas (city-state). The term civis was reserved for those community members who met certain requirements. The rest of the population was not considered citizens.

In ancient Greece, the term... Continue reading "Understanding Citizenship: Ancient Roots to Modernity" »

Plato's Philosophy: Key Concepts

Plato posited the existence of two distinct realms: the tangible world (the sensible world we perceive) and the intelligible world (the world of perfect Forms or Ideas).

The Allegory of the Cave: Path to True Knowledge

To achieve true knowledge, one must progress through all four phases of the Allegory of the Cave:

1. Delusion
2. Liberation
3. Ascension
4. Return

Upon completing these stages, one can grasp the essence and true idea of real objects. For example, understanding the perfect Form of a chair, not just its imperfect physical manifestation.

In our sensible world, we can never attain true knowledge of a physical chair because what we perceive is merely an imperfect copy of its ideal Form.

Plato's Theory of Forms and Theory

Aristotle's Philosophy of Happiness

According to Aristotle, humanity aspires to a final goal, which unifies all purposes. All other goals are lesser purposes or means to reach this ultimate goal, which unifies, organizes, and prioritizes all others. For Aristotle, the ultimate goal is happiness (eudaimonia).

All human efforts and actions are directed towards this ultimate good inherent in human nature. It is necessary to specify what happiness is and how to achieve it. Aristotle states that happiness is not merely pleasure or wealth. While these may have some connection with the 'good life,' true happiness is understood as living according to the function most proper to humans.

The most characteristic function of human beings is derived from reason.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Pursuit of Happiness and Kant's Ethics of Duty" »

The Humanization Process: Evolution of Being

It is evident that bipedal posture permits arms to be no longer just a support for the body: the hands are free and can perform functions that were previously done with the mouth. The facial muscles weaken, allowing for language articulation. This distinguishes humans from animals.

The process of humanization begins the moment intelligence emerges. The human species develops its intelligence and its body because the quality of being human does not admit degrees.

The Greek philosophers claimed that humans were intelligent because they expressed themselves through their hands. Intelligence serves as a tool for acquiring knowledge.

The Human Being in the World: Rationality & Purpose

The human being is... Continue reading "Humanization & Self: Unraveling the Essence of Being" »

The word "ethics" comes from the Latin word meaning "sea." Actually, the word ethics is derived from "ethos," which is Greek for character. Thus, the relationship between the two concepts is clear. Whoever makes it a custom or habit to act responsibly ends up with a wise character or personality. This character, in turn, makes that person more responsible for their actions than the foolish. So, there is a close relationship between custom and character.

Ethics and Morals

Ethics and morals are not only etymologically akin. Currently, the terms are used interchangeably as synonyms. In philosophical language, a distinction is usually made between the moral code or rules governing proper action and ethics proper, i.e., reflection about morality.... Continue reading "Understanding Ethics, Morality, and Bioethics" »

Descartes' Mechanistic Physics

Influenced by Galileo, Descartes believed that in the material world, only two things are relevant: how the universe is composed of indefinite matter, and the movement that has been assigned (three laws, largely established previously by Galileo).

The highlight of his work is his mechanistic physics, which treats the universe as a giant machine. This machine is formed by compact matter that occupies the entirety (what we call emptiness is actually ether) and forms eddies that adhere to each other. In turn, he states that comets are merely bits of matter expelled from a whirlwind due to centrifugal force, which are then absorbed by another. Finally, he argues that bodies are artifacts, distinguishing between: animals... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Physics, Dualism, and Ethics" »