Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Perspectives on Knowledge

Descartes did not use the word itself as subjective-objective. What are the consequences of this? Scientists often view everything through the lens of objective investigation, focusing on goals and aspirations. Poets, on the other hand, embody wisdom through subjectivity.

Sentences involve an utterance and are formed by propositions. While words express concepts like fear, two sentences with different contents can convey an equally limited meaning.

A poet's expression is based on the enunciative sentence's content. It relies on the manner and content to express something limited. Conversely, we often desire more content when the expression itself is limited.

Types of Statements and Knowledge

Expressions (propositions)

Spanish Romantic Prose in the Early 19th Century

Although high-quality literary prose existed in Spain during the early 19th century, with notable exceptions like Larra, this period was crucial for the later emergence and consolidation of the realist novel. During the first decades of the 19th century, a publishing web was brewing, producing newspapers and books. This made not only the translation of novels profitable but also their original writing. Romantic prose developed late and hesitantly in Spain. The romantic prose genre itself was the historical novel, although other stories with romantic, sentimental, or horror content were also published. The serial novel significantly increased readership. It also conditioned the form and structure... Continue reading "Spanish Romantic Prose and Mariano José de Larra's Works" »

Between Good and Evil: Exploring Human Ethics

In animal life, the perpetuation of the species is ensured through ingenious mechanisms. However, humans yearn for something more: the perpetuation and spread of the unique. As Saint Augustine said, man represents a new beginning, a model defined by singularities. Hegel posited that thinking about life is the task, and valuing actions is the way to value life. Can we say there is a way of life?

We call 'art' the skillful practice in a particular field. Its general principles can be learned, but its highest levels of excellence lack precise rules and can only be admired in the exercise of outstanding individuals. Once learned, art is not yet fully mastered. The art of living, if we accept it, may be... Continue reading "Exploring Ethics: From Ancient Wisdom to Modern Concepts" »

Presocratic Philosophers and the Cosmos

Presocratic philosophers sought to explain the origin and constitution of the cosmos. They aimed to discover the principle (arche) of the universe, focusing on what they called 'naturaleza' (nature) rather than anthropomorphic deities. This marked the beginning of philosophy and science. The cosmos was naturalized, meaning nature became distinct from the 'divine' and 'sacred'.

What did 'physis' mean to these early philosophers? It represented the original matter from which everything is composed, the source and destination of all things, the organizing principle of reality, and the process of genesis and generation.

The Ionian School

Thales: He initiated the logical investigation of nature, asserting that... Continue reading "Presocratic Philosophers: Unveiling the Origins of Cosmos" »

Myth - Logos:

In the 6th century BC, a new set of ideas appeared in Greece. Rational thought emerged to explain the world, human beings, and their behavior. This challenged the power of mythological explanations, favoring explanations based on a new, rational method. This new method is characterized by:

• Having a critical attitude.
• Using criteria, principles, and logic when arguing.
• Justifying and providing arguments.

Relationship between Science and Philosophy:

Originally, philosophers were called "physicists," and their subject was Nature. While the forces of nature were personified, their performance was unpredictable and capricious. A clear example of the relationship between science and nature is that Democritus was a philosopher who defended... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: Philosophy & Science Origins" »

Kant and Enlightenment: Key Concepts

The 18th century, the century of Enlightenment, was decisive for the history of the West. In this century, the concept of rationality and human questioning arose: What is man? Philosophers investigated the possibilities and limits of man. A set of improvements in politics and in the treatment of people occurred, preceding the French Revolution, as people fought for rights, freedoms, peace, justice, and tolerance. Immanuel Kant was an enlightened thinker who defended these precepts.

Born in Konigsberg (Germany) in 1724, within a humble family that professed German Protestant pietism, Kant held profound moral and religious values. He dedicated his life to studying and teaching. At the university, he became interested... Continue reading "Kant and Enlightenment: Key Concepts Explained" »

Analysis of 'The House of Bernarda Alba'

The House of Bernarda Alba is an avant-garde play from the twentieth century. It is one of Federico García Lorca's most popular works, exploring themes such as social class distinctions, the role of women in society, traditions, conservative morality, Bernarda's authoritarianism, and her daughters' desire for freedom.

Social Class and Relationships

As in previous centuries, the distinction between social classes is a prominent theme. In this work, it is clearly represented by Bernarda and Poncia. Although they have known each other since childhood, Bernarda makes clear her superior status, emphasizing the distance between them. Bernarda speaks with contempt about those she considers beneath her, stating,... Continue reading "Analysis of Social Themes in 'The House of Bernarda Alba'" »

Descartes' Philosophy: Rationalism and the Cartesian Method

Rationalism

Descartes was the founder of rationalism, which posits that reason is the superior source of knowledge and provides us with truths.

Cartesian Method

Descartes' conception advocated for the unity of knowledge, meaning all knowledge is based on reason. However, it is necessary to understand its structure to achieve it. To do this, he took mathematics as a model and used the appropriate method. Reason is based on intuition, which enables simple concepts without error, and deduction, which is deriving knowledge from several intuitions. The discourse of the method consists of:

• **Evidence:** Nothing can be taken as true without knowing what it is.
• **Analysis:** Divide complex problems

Descartes' Knowledge

Rationalism is the philosophy initiated by Descartes. Reason is the only power that can lead to knowledge of the truth. Descartes, aided by reason and motivated by the disappointment generated by most of the knowledge he acquired, proposes the development of a scientific method that would unite all the sciences. He chooses to formulate the mathematical method, aiming for universally accepted solutions.

The Cartesian Method

His new method is based on the pillars of intuition and deduction, with conclusions being apparent through reason. Thus, he tries to build a method which brings us to absolute truth.

Intuition, being one of the pillars of the new method, is revealed as the search for the first indubitable truth on which to... Continue reading "Descartes' Rationalism and Method" »

The Interplay of Reason and Desire

Two Classes of Mind Processes

We can distinguish two main classes of mind processes. On one hand, we have rational processes like thinking, remembering, judging, and imagining. With these, we are aware of ourselves assenting to or dissenting from a proposition. On the other hand, we have desires, affections, and feelings. These are characterized by a lack of awareness; we don't choose our wishes or feelings. Rational processes are based on reason, while desires, emotions, and feelings, traditionally considered passions, are not.

Reason vs. Passion

Traditionally, it was believed that both rational and irrational processes were driven by opposing forces within us. This "battle" between reason and passion takes... Continue reading "The interplay of reason and desire in human action" »