Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Rational-Empirical Methods

These methods involve both the senses and the mind. The senses provide data about reality, which is perceived as varied and changing. The mind, however, seeks a permanent reality, understood through intuition and reasoning, or through certain concepts. These methods aim to grasp the substance of things, identifying the fundamental basis grasped by the mind – something sustainable and unchanging beneath all perceived changes.

Empiricist Methods

• Experience is the primary source of knowledge. The value of knowledge comes from experience.
• Truth is verified de facto through experience; questions that cannot be empirically verified are outside its scope.
• The origin and value of knowledge derive from sensory experience, and

Individualism Explained

Individualism starts from the idea that the basic unit of society is the individual person, not the group. Therefore, it prioritizes individual interests.

Politics

Governments represent individuals and protect their rights and interests.

Ethics

Morality is determined by individual rights in relation to the common good.

Religion

Individuals are responsible for their own religious experiences.

Economics

Emphasizes private property and free trade.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

Major Works

• On Liberty
• Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism and Human Dignity

Mill based his utilitarianism on human dignity.

Elements of Happiness

Two elements Mill considered necessary for achieving happiness:

• Self-Development: The ability to learn, mature, and change as

Thomas Aquinas: A 13th-Century Scholar

Historical and Sociocultural Context

Saint Thomas Aquinas lived during the 13th century, a period marked by Europe's resurgence, with the growth of towns, trade, and the rise of universities. Feudalism remained the dominant social structure, but the emergence of the bourgeoisie signaled a shift in power dynamics.

This era witnessed the pursuit of a universal Christendom, influenced by cultural exchanges between Islam and Christianity, spurred by the Crusades and the Toledo School of Translators. The introduction of Aristotle's works to the West significantly impacted philosophical thought, shaping the development of scholasticism.

Influences and Impact

Aquinas was deeply influenced by Aristotle, incorporating... Continue reading "Aquinas's Synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christianity" »

Argued

If one person argues with another, they speak angrily to each other about something that they disagree about.

Bandage

A piece of material used to dress a wound, bind a broken limb, etc. (Vendaje)

Bending

To form a curve, as by pushing or pulling. (Flexión)

Busy

When you are busy, you are working hard or concentrating on a task, so that you are not free to do anything else.

Chasing

Run after someone or follow them quickly, to catch or reach them.

Criminal

A person who commits crimes for a living / a person charged with and convicted of a crime. (Criminal)

Cut off

To remove something by cutting.

Delivery

A delivery person or service delivers things to a place.

Empty

If you feel empty, you feel unhappy and not energetic / Containing nothing.

Feeding

To give... Continue reading "Common English Word Definitions and Meanings" »

As vital as the historical reason why life exists today: for example, a person's life can be a particular instant in a role, as in "your life." But that instant is not given in isolation. The moment and his work came moments after another long gone, but remaining the same as a souvenir. They last the life of each, the task of history. Everything comes from a soil (the past) and in view of a project (which is not yet one's own life, but what it wants to become in the future). This means, logically, that human life is rooted in history. Ortega says that man has no nature, but history, which means that all content appearing in human life is historical.

For Ortega, there are not two historical reasons, one vital and the other not, but vital reason... Continue reading "The Historical Roots of Human Life: An Ortega Perspective" »

Overview

Nietzsche's philosophy is a critique of the entire Western philosophical tradition, including the values promoted by Christianity and the Enlightenment. His work opened new directions in contemporary thought by challenging the emphasis on reason and rationality.

Critique of Reason and Embrace of Irrationalism

Modern philosophy initially sought a method centered on reason. However, Nietzsche criticized this approach, denouncing the limitations of reason and advocating for a shift towards irrationalism in two ways:

• Negative Slope: A critique of religion, morality, and Western culture.
• Positive Slope: An attempt to understand and explain life as driven by the "will to power."

Key Themes in Nietzsche's Philosophy

Nietzsche's philosophy explores... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critique of Tradition" »

Kant's Philosophy

Theoretical Reason

Kant supports the French Revolution and trusts in reason. Pure reason has two uses: theoretical and practical. Theoretically, Kant questions if metaphysics is a science, like math and physics, which derive from pure reason. He uses a Copernican shift, imposing laws on objects for scientific progress. This explains a priori knowledge (universal and necessary) in science. Scientific knowledge should have material and formal elements, expressed in judgments. Scientific judgment must facilitate progress and be a priori.

Transcendental Aesthetics

Perceptual knowledge from external reality is arranged in space and time by a priori forms of sensibility. This perception is necessary for the next step: knowing.

Transcendental

Item 1: The Scientific Method

Scientific Work

• Asking Questions: Asking relevant questions about natural phenomena is crucial for scientific progress. While ambitious questions are important, focusing on more manageable questions can often lead to more concrete and useful answers.
• Formulating Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a natural phenomenon. It's typically based on observations, existing ideas, or beliefs.
• Testing Hypotheses: Scientific hypotheses must be testable. This involves designing experiments and gathering data to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted. This process can lead to the development of scientific theories.
• Formulating Theories: Scientific theories are general explanations for a wide

Mutual Agreements: Consumer Loans

First Part:

The Mutual: Consumer loan (free)

Subjects:

• Mutuante: Who delivers the thing
• Borrower, who accepts and agrees to rollback.

Subject Matter:

Stuff Supplies: money, cereals.

Cause:

Delivery of the thing

Actions:

For the return of the thing: actions of the law.

If it was wheat: Trigari action

If it was money: Credit money action.

Maritime loans: A person pays a shipowner money to take a commodity, money should reach port. The money was to buy merchandise.

Respond by: Pay guilt, deceit and assumes the risk of unforeseeable circumstances.

Muto would argue: borrowed money to invest and be repaid with interest, loan for use (free).

Loaning Agreements

Subjects:

• Lender: Who delivers the thing
• Borrower: who accepts and agrees

From Myth to Logos

The philosophy appears to sigol IV BC environment, with the thinkers of the school of origin mileto. The philosophy is often characterized by the expression of the transition from myth to logos. It gave reference to the gradual abandonment of the myth and its replacement by logos. Represents the appearance of rational thought and reflection that takes the place of traditional mythical explanations acritically. We speak of the abandonment of the myth in favor of the rational, when being human nature is about trying to find explanations of what happens not appeal to the capricious and arbitrary wishes of the gods, but basically explanations arising from observation of reality and rational reflection. Major differences are:

• Myth: