Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Life and Context of René Descartes

René Descartes was born in La Haye, Touraine (France), in 1596. As a figure of the 16th and 17th centuries, he lived through a period of economic boom in France, England, and Holland, contrasted by the decline of Renaissance powers like Italy and Spain. This era was marked by significant religious conflicts, including the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, which triggered long periods of war and persecution between the rising bourgeoisie and the traditional nobility. Notably, the Thirty Years' War devastated much of Europe due to these deep-seated religious divisions.

The Scientific Revolution and Rationalism

Culturally, the 16th century was defined by the Scientific Revolution,... Continue reading "René Descartes: Rationalism and the Scientific Revolution" »

Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substance and Reality

Metaphysics: The study of reality and what exists. Aristotle referred to this as substance, proposing the theory of hylemorphism: the union of matter (the physical component) and form (specific qualities). All around us are substances, which constitute the unique and authentic reality. This reality, for Aristotle, is a substantial synthesis, bridging the gap between Plato's two-world theory.

Aristotle begins by acknowledging Plato's concept of universals, which arise from the perfections of things. However, according to Aristotle, these universals do not reside in a separate, higher world, but rather within the things themselves. In reality, only individual, concrete substances exist. Yet, each... Continue reading "Aristotle's Core Philosophy & Hellenistic Ethics" »

Hypothetical-Deductive Method

The complete method of natural science is divided into three levels:

• Protocol Statements: These express world phenomena that can be established empirically.
• Laws: These are universal statements that express the behavior or relationship of certain phenomena in a regular and unvarying manner.
• Theories: These are universal statements that can be drawn from all the laws of a particular science.

One or more explanatory hypotheses are developed based on observed facts or detected problems.

Key Processes:

• Verification: A hypothesis is considered true when the observed facts agree with the facts deduced from the hypothesis.
• Falsification: A hypothesis is refuted or "false" when the facts in the world do not agree with the facts

Collective Entrepreneurship: Key Advantages

As previously discussed, merchants can operate through two primary structures: as a sole trader or as part of a collective entrepreneurship. Operating as a collective merchant offers several distinct advantages.

1. Limitation of Liability

Developing trade through a commercial company limits your financial exposure. Partners are generally only liable up to the amount of their contributions. This protects personal assets from social obligations, with the notable exception of general partnerships, where partners may remain liable in perpetuity.

2. Attracting Resources

Collective structures facilitate larger business operations. By pooling resources, partners can undertake investments that would be unattainable... Continue reading "Advantages of Collective Entrepreneurship and Business Entities" »

Descartes' Methodic Doubt and the Cogito

This text introduces the doubts René Descartes systematically applied to everything surrounding him. He questioned everything derived from our senses, the pronouncements of the wise, and even mathematical certainties. Descartes initially suspected that everything he had ever believed might be deceptive. He pondered: if God is infinitely good and powerful, why would He allow us to be deceived? Or perhaps, he speculated, we are deceived by some malicious entity or for some unknown reason.

However, Descartes explained that one thing cannot be doubted: the act of thinking itself. He famously concluded, "Cogito ergo sum" – if he thinks, then he must exist. From this certainty arises the correspondence between... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt, Mind, God, and Reality" »

From Myth to Logos: A Shift in Thinking

The transition from myth to logos signifies a fundamental shift in mindset: the capacity to conceive of myths yielded to the rational approach of Philosophy. This transformation in thinking unfolded in Greece during the Archaic period of its history (8th-6th centuries BCE). Throughout this era, certain individuals began to challenge both the mythical interpretations of reality and traditional mythical religion.

Mythical explanations of reality, presented as truths, gradually failed to satisfy human curiosity. Consequently, by the 6th century BCE, early philosophers emerged, who demanded objective testing and demonstration, essentially seeking rational explanations rather than narratives. The traditional... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: The Rise of Rational Thought" »

Traditional Proofs of the Existence of God

Principle of Causality (Aquinas's Five Ways)

Everything that moves is moved by another. We cannot trace this series of causes infinitely backward; therefore, there must be an uncaused first cause, which is God. Similarly, the universe exhibits a complex design, implying a designer we call God. A key problem with these arguments is that they use the principle of causality to establish the existence of an exception to the principle itself.

The Ontological Argument

The ontological argument centers on the idea of God as "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." If we conceive of God, we cannot conceive of God as non-existent, because a non-existent being is less great than one that exists. This leads... Continue reading "Classical Arguments for God's Existence" »

Ethical Materials and Formal Ethics

Ethics materials: Bad acts, heterogeneous good acts, and formal ethics with an emphasis on freedom.

Aristotelian Ethics

Aristotelian ethics: All human beings by nature form habits that lead to happiness (felicidad). Two classes: Positive: achieving happiness; Negative: the absence of virtue and happiness. Aristotle says virtue is a mean between extremes; reason identifies the mean and the prudent person (prudente) chooses it. Virtue as a mean is a point between extremes. Aristotle also says a person is happy when they have good behavior and some luck (suerte). Contemplation is the highest virtue and the fullest exercise of the mind.

Scholastic Ethics

Scholastic ethics: Moral ideas developed in Christian schools.... Continue reading "Ethics, Kant, Nietzsche and International Human Rights Covenants" »

Metaphysics: God, Mind, and Reality

Metaphysics delves into the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, between substance and attribute, and between potentiality and actuality. A central figure in this exploration is the concept of God, often defined as an infinite being.

Saint Anselm's Ontological Argument

Saint Anselm, utilizing an existing argument, posited that God, being an infinite and all-powerful being, is perfect. If God is a perfect being, then God must possess all possible attributes. A perfect being is that which lacks nothing. Therefore, God cannot be deprived of existence, as a lesser being would be imperfect. Thus, God must exist.

The Significance of God's Existence

The existence of God is... Continue reading "Descartes' Metaphysics: God, Mind, and Reality" »

Modes of Philosophical Understanding in Greek Culture

In Greek culture, philosophy is understood in several ways:

• Possession of the Truth about Nature: Nature is the set of all things that exist. Those who seek the truth of nature are often called physicists or physiologists.
• Vision of Being: The philosopher is concerned about what things are. The philosopher is aware of the being of things and how they come to be or cease to be.
• Rational Science of Things: Philosophy is an inquiry intended to understand what each thing is, allowing us to distinguish and differentiate things.
• Rhetoric and Culture: Human reason can teach things to others. There is no knowledge without the ability to articulate, communicate, learn to argue, and teach.

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