Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Mutual vs. Commercial Insurance Contracts

According to Article 124 of the Commercial Code (C. Com), mutual insurance companies, fire tontines, life combinations to assist the elderly, and any other class, are considered businesses and remain subject to the provisions of this Code when engaged in acts of foreign trade to the mutual fund or corporation, thereby becoming a fixed premium entity. This section highlights the difference between insurance contracts entered into with a public limited company (SA) and those concluded with mutual organizations.

It is crucial to distinguish between fixed premium mutuals and variable premium mutuals. These represent different social forms, primarily based on mutual responsibility:

• In the first case (fixed

The central theme of this text is the path of knowledge that Plato calls "dialectic," as described in the allegory of the cave. This allegory presents humans chained inside a cave, confused in a world of appearances and shadows, with their ignorance interpreted as true reality. However, humans are called out of the cave into the light to know the real world, free from the shackles of prejudice and ignorance. To achieve this, the human soul possesses the power of intelligence, which allows us to rise on the path of knowledge. This path is difficult because, although the soul aspires to break free of customs, beliefs, and prejudices, at the end of this road, one finds true reality, the idea of goodness, just as the sun illuminates all intellectual... Continue reading "Plato's Cave Allegory: Understanding the Ascent to True Knowledge" »

Aristotle's Logic

3. Logic. Aristotle is credited with creating logic as a tool for scientific inquiry. He demonstrated that in science, problems are resolved by navigating between the singular and the multiple, the universal and the particular.

The syllogism expresses a relationship that illustrates how the universal applies to the particular. For example: "Every man is mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

• Induction (Inverse Process): If we know all particular cases and arrive at a general conclusion, the induction is complete. Example: Men, horses, and mules live long, and they are animals without gallbladders; therefore, animals without gallbladders are long-lived.

We possess scientific knowledge if we know: that something... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics and Logic: Understanding Being" »

The Nature of Existence and Tangible Property

Things that have an actual existence are those that are mandatory for the senses and the mind. This includes tangible things such as solids, liquids, and vapors.

Understanding Personal Wealth and Heritage

From the concept of personal wealth, we postulate that people have only heritage. Wealth is considered an attribute of personality and is composed of all heritage assets, which include:

• Assets and rights (positive value)
• Liabilities (loads or obligations)

When Livestock Becomes Real Estate

Herds, flocks, and other livestock (both tame and wild) are classified as real estate when they are not separated from their pastures and farms.

Classification of Assets: Divisible and Indivisible

The difference between... Continue reading "Legal Classification of Property and Asset Heritage" »

Discourse on Method, Part IV: Commentary

Author: René Descartes

Historical Context and Setting

Descartes was in France, often associated with the Jesuits, during a period of significant transition. National monarchies and empires were rising, and a new economic form, capitalism (later criticized by Marxism), was emerging. Two key intellectual events influenced this work: anthropocentrism (Descartes writing in the first person) and the Scientific Revolution.

Central Theme and Philosophical Problem

The central problem is the search for a first, undeniable truth (axiom) that can serve as a starting point for a secure and universal philosophy. This search establishes existence by finding the subject as a thinking substance, or res cogitans.

Key Philosophical

Kantian Ethics: What Should I Do?

Kant aimed to create an ethic of universal validity, applicable to all people at all times, and autonomous, independent of external factors like religion. He criticized previous ethical systems as being material and teleological, focused on achieving specific ends like happiness or salvation. Kant proposed a formal ethic, emphasizing the form or mode of action rather than the outcome.

The will, the power of man involved in the action, is central to Kant's ethics. Only the will or intention behind an action can be judged. While only the individual knows their own intention (autonomy), an action done out of duty must be applicable universally. The guiding principle for actions and intentions is the categorical... Continue reading "Kantian Ethics: Duty, Reason, and the Categorical Imperative" »

Descartes' Quest for Certainty

René Descartes addressed the insecurity and confusion of his era by proposing a rational response rooted in the thinking and existing "I," establishing a foundation of certainty.

Philosophical Context of the 17th Century

1. The Shifting Concept of Truth

   The 17th century witnessed a profound gnoseological shift in modernity, redefining the concept of truth and knowledge. The possibility of achieving rigorous knowledge emerged, yet empiricists affirmed that we only perceive representations and images of truth. Consequently, the nature of truth became a highly contested theme.

2. The Pursuit of Method

   The attainment of truth necessitated a strong concern for method. This method had to facilitate progress and advancement. The

Text: Characteristics and Properties

Defining Text and Communication

A text is a meaningful unit of communication, whether oral or written, produced with a specific intent in certain circumstances. It functions as a complete and coherent message between participants.

Factors of the Communicative Situation

Several factors must be considered within a communicative situation:

• Relationship Between Participants

  This is determined by social and cultural mechanisms governing interactions, such as gender and socio-cultural level. Communicative competence refers to the issuer's ability to select appropriate registers for each speech act. The issuer must choose a suitable register (formal or informal).

• Communicative Intention

  This factor determines the text'

Right to Justice: All children and adolescents have the right to appear before a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal to defend their rights and interests, with decisions made on their petitions within statutory periods. All adolescents are fully capable of directly and personally exercising this right.

Maternity Protection: The State shall protect maternity. To this effect, it must ensure that all women receive free, high-quality care services and programs during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal phase. Additionally, it should ensure care programs specifically geared toward the guidance and protection of the maternal and filial bond of all adolescent girls and pregnant mothers.

Right to Participation and Freedom of Expression

All... Continue reading "Children's Rights: Justice, Maternity, and Participation" »