Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Quest for Certainty

René Descartes addressed the insecurity and confusion of his era by proposing a rational response rooted in the thinking and existing "I," establishing a foundation of certainty.

Philosophical Context of the 17th Century

1. The Shifting Concept of Truth

   The 17th century witnessed a profound gnoseological shift in modernity, redefining the concept of truth and knowledge. The possibility of achieving rigorous knowledge emerged, yet empiricists affirmed that we only perceive representations and images of truth. Consequently, the nature of truth became a highly contested theme.

2. The Pursuit of Method

   The attainment of truth necessitated a strong concern for method. This method had to facilitate progress and advancement. The

Text: Characteristics and Properties

Defining Text and Communication

A text is a meaningful unit of communication, whether oral or written, produced with a specific intent in certain circumstances. It functions as a complete and coherent message between participants.

Factors of the Communicative Situation

Several factors must be considered within a communicative situation:

• Relationship Between Participants

  This is determined by social and cultural mechanisms governing interactions, such as gender and socio-cultural level. Communicative competence refers to the issuer's ability to select appropriate registers for each speech act. The issuer must choose a suitable register (formal or informal).

• Communicative Intention

  This factor determines the text'

Right to Justice: All children and adolescents have the right to appear before a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal to defend their rights and interests, with decisions made on their petitions within statutory periods. All adolescents are fully capable of directly and personally exercising this right.

Maternity Protection: The State shall protect maternity. To this effect, it must ensure that all women receive free, high-quality care services and programs during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal phase. Additionally, it should ensure care programs specifically geared toward the guidance and protection of the maternal and filial bond of all adolescent girls and pregnant mothers.

Right to Participation and Freedom of Expression

All... Continue reading "Children's Rights: Justice, Maternity, and Participation" »

Nietzsche's Critique of European Morality

N1 Nietzsche proposes a new perspective against European morality, which he strongly criticizes. He bases this on the denial of instincts and life, stating that Judeo-Christian morality has prevailed throughout the culture for twenty centuries.

In contrast, the philosopher proposes the affirmation of life, with special emphasis on the will to power, to give a yes to eternal life without excluding anything. Therefore, his current is positivism.

However, to reaffirm his vitalism, Nietzsche sharply criticized Christian morality. He does this through the genealogical method, applying the concepts of good and bad, looking for their origins in his work The Genealogy of Morals (1887).

According to the German philosopher,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Morality and Ethical Theories" »

Initial Capital Contribution and Incorporation

Three classmates, having completed their studies in Governing Finance Society, decided to form X Society. The initial capital of X Society was set at €60,000.00, with shares having a nominal value of €10.00 each. On April 1st, the founders contributed €15,000.00 to an account opened on behalf of X Society. The company's incorporation was recorded in the Commercial Register on April 20th.

Initial Accounting Entries (April 1st - April 20th):

• Upon issuance of registration:
  Debit: €60,000 (Account 190)
  Credit: €60,000 (Account 194)
• Accounting for disbursement:
  Debit: €15,000 (Account 566)
  Debit: €45,000 (Account 1034)
  Credit: €60,000 (Account 190)
• Registration in the Commercial Register:

Topic 5: Introduction to Philosophical Empiricism

Empiricism emphasizes the role of sensory experience in acquiring knowledge. It denies the existence of innate ideas, proposing that the mind begins as a "blank slate." This perspective challenges traditional metaphysics, which attempts to transcend the boundaries of experience.

1. Epistemological Foundations

1.1. Elements of Knowledge

According to Locke and Hume, an "idea" represents everything we know or perceive. Hume refined Locke's concept of "idea" to encompass sensations and perceptions. He identified two key elements of knowledge:

• Impressions: These are immediate sensations—our direct experience of the world. They are strong, vivid feelings that form the raw data of our senses.
• Ideas:

The Insurance Contract

Definition of an Insurance Contract

An insurance contract is an agreement where the insurer, in exchange for a premium, agrees to indemnify the insured for losses or damages arising from a specified risk, within agreed-upon limits. It can also involve the payment of a capital sum, income, or other agreed-upon benefits.

Characteristics of an Insurance Contract

• Bilateral: Both parties (insurer and insured) have obligations.
• Consideration: Both parties seek economic benefits.
• Aleatory: The performance of the contract depends on a random event (the occurrence of the insured risk).

Elements of an Insurance Contract

The Insurer

The insurance company that assumes the risk and collects premiums.

The Policyholder

The person who signs the... Continue reading "Understanding Insurance Contracts: Elements and Key Features" »

Distinction Between Science and Opinion

The distinction between science and opinion is fundamental. Science grasps the essence of reality, understanding its inherent nature and interconnections. Opinion, however, only perceives an image based on superficial appearances. The path of science is arduous, akin to a battle, yet it is the sole true way. Those dedicated to science may seem detached, living in a profound pursuit of truth. For them, the ultimate liberation lies not in death, but in the continuous ascent towards true knowledge.

Defining Key Concepts

• Essence: What constitutes reality itself.
• Science: The knowledge of true being.

Plato's Two Worlds: Ideas and the Sensible

In philosophy, Plato posited a radical distinction between two realms:... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Unveiling Reality and True Knowledge" »

The Problem of Knowledge: Epistemology

Hume is the most important author of the school of empiricism. Empiricism states that all our knowledge comes from experience. Hume denies the existence of innate ideas in reason, prior to experience, since our mind is like a blank page on which nothing is written at birth (tabula rasa).

He distinguishes two elements of knowledge (or "perceptions"): impressions, more vivid mental representations received by the senses (external or internal); and ideas, which are representations or copies of past impressions in the mind, characterized by being less lively. Both impressions and ideas can be simple or complex.

Ideas can be associated or connected according to three basic laws: the law of similarity, the law... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism: Knowledge, Morality, and Politics" »