Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Essence of Community: Aristotle's View

In the fourth century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle defined man as a "political animal." Aristotle did not mean that man should necessarily participate in politics; he was referring to the fact that man, by nature, has to live with other men, and that means living in community. For Aristotle, the community best for the individual should be self-sufficient and autonomous.

Fostering Citizenship in the European Union

The European Union includes the objective of promoting school community learning, valuing democratic participation, and preparing people for citizenship.

Cultivating Responsible Global Citizens

This course is intended to help young people learn to live in a pluralistic and global society,... Continue reading "Building Strong Communities: Civic Values and Conflict Resolution" »

Marxist Theory of Alienation

According to Marx, humanity is alienated for several reasons:

• Economic: In capitalist society, individuals earn a salary for their labor, but it is often barely enough to meet their needs. The capitalist exploits the proletariat by accumulating wealth without directly working.
• Professional: Society does not reward individuals for good work; instead, labor serves to enrich the capitalist, even though work is fundamental to personal fulfillment.
• Legal: While the law proclaims equality, in reality, opportunities are not the same for everyone.
• Ideological: The ideology of a society reflects the beliefs of the ruling class. Religion, for instance, promises rewards in the afterlife if one follows a set of rules and does not

Atheism

A doctrine which, in theory or attitude, and in practice, denies the existence of God. It is important to distinguish atheism, which asserts a positive non-existence of God, from indifferentism, agnosticism, and skepticism.

Feign

To have the appearance (of a certain thing, a certain age, etc.). Historically, in religions, there have always been people or doctrines that feigned or appeared to be something else.

Science

A set of knowledge and activities designed to achieve it, characterized formally by intersubjectivity, and practically by the ability to make accurate predictions about a part of reality.

Tarraconense Council

A document that reflects on the needs of the poorest and marginalized, and calls upon Christians to renew their commitment... Continue reading "Essential Definitions: Social, Philosophical, and Religious Concepts" »

History of the Argentine Pension System

Historically, Argentina utilized a dual retirement system: public distribution (ANSES) and private capitalization (AFJP).

Early Milestones and Generalization Attempts

• 1800s: Early pension systems existed.
• 1877: Government established precepts for teachers' pensions.
• 1909: Specific regulations for teachers.
• 1920s (Avellaneda): The 1884 Ley 1420 included a failed attempt at generalization.

Generalization failed because employees resisted due to salary deductions, and employers resisted paying contributions.

Perón's Government and the Distribution System

The Perón government generalized the system. Contributions were paid to the state, which managed the funds and paid pensions. This system was based on solidarity.... Continue reading "Argentina's Pension System Evolution: From AFJP to SIPA and ANSES Functions" »

The Three Manifestations of the Will to Power

Nietzsche identifies three primary manifestations of the Will to Power (Wille zur Macht):

• Will to Create: Developing the instincts that give us life and creating new values.
• Will to Self-Affirmation: Striving to maintain one's current state.
• Will to Improve: Trying to surpass oneself by becoming more authentic.

The Will to Power is a force driving continuous change, movement, and creation. All beings are expressions of the Will to Power, but some possess a greater intensity of this life force than others.

The Concept of the Übermensch (Superman)

Following the “death of God” and the decline of traditional Christian values, we conclude that there are no absolute truths. This creates the necessary atmosphere... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Four Core Concepts: Will, Values, Recurrence" »

Nihilism and the Crisis of Meaning

With nihilism comes the death of God, a profound crisis of meaning and belief. Existence becomes unsustainable, empty, and devoid of purpose. Consider that every value is possible only if God exists, and if God does not exist, it ultimately leads to despair.

Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics

Nietzsche accused metaphysics of hating the notion of becoming. He asserted that the only attributes of reality are plurality and mobility. The apparent world of the senses is the only thing that exists, and anything else is unprovable.

Metaphysical Errors Identified by Nietzsche

• Metaphysicians confuse the last with the first. General concepts are the last thing humanity captures through abstraction, beginning with the senses.

Thomas Aquinas and the Existence of God

Thomas Aquinas sought to integrate Christian faith with common sense and empirical observation (confidence in the senses). This approach influenced his quest for a rational demonstration of the existence of God. For Thomas, God's existence lies outside the scope of the obvious and, therefore, necessitates a rational demonstration. He believed that all human knowledge begins with the senses, so the existence of God can only be inferred from sensible objects. God, he argued, must have left significant clues in the world He created that lead us to prove His existence.

Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways

Thomas produced five ways to prove the existence of God. In these five ways, he argues similarly, following the same... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: 5 Ways to Prove God's Existence" »

Plato's Theory of Knowledge

Plato distinguishes two levels or degrees of knowledge:

• The Scientific Knowledge (Episteme)

  This is the highest level of knowledge, concerning the intelligible region. It is true, objective, and non-relative. To be achieved, we must turn our soul toward the sphere of the immaterial and abstract—i.e., toward the contemplation of the Eternal Ideas.

• The Opinion (Doxa)

  This is the lower degree of knowledge, concerning sensible and material reality. It is dark, confused, unreliable, relative, and changing. Only opinions can be obtained at this level, although through opinion, we are at least somewhat closer to the intelligible realities.

Plato's Objections to Athenian Democracy

Plato's objections against the democracy of his... Continue reading "Plato's Epistemology and the Ideal State" »

Understanding the Mind-Body Problem

The brain-mind relationship, often referred to as the mind-body problem, is intrinsically linked to the problem of perception. It seeks to understand the nature of perceptions and, more generally, all mental contents. Perceptions, sensory experiences, and thoughts are fundamentally mental.

This fundamental distinction often leads to differentiating between physical bodies and mental states:

• Physical Bodies: These are all objects that can be measured and touched, subject to all defined physical laws. Generally, they can be studied with scientific instruments and are accessible to everyone.
• Mental States: These encompass thoughts and the flow of mental contents that, by definition, are internal to each individual.

Nature, Concepts, and Classes of Legal Principles

We bring together doctrinal positions in two major sections: the claim that principles are rules and the negation of that claim.

Principles as Normative Standards

General principles indicate behaviors that are considered valuable and, therefore, must be performed. Accordingly, it is affirmed that they constitute a kind of rule, since they always guide action by prescribing or prohibiting something. Generally speaking, rules can be defined as the set of principles and regulations that govern community life; they are one of the instruments of social control that upholds the organization of society.

The doctrine lists several traits that characterize principles and distinguish them from other rules:... Continue reading "The Nature and Classification of Legal Principles" »