Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Deductive, Inductive, and Analogical Reasoning

When we reason, we use two primary methods: deduction and induction.

Deductive Reasoning

If we start from accepted and reliable premises and infer partial conclusions, we use deductive reasoning. Deductive arguments are useful because, if well-constructed, they are necessarily true. Every good argument from premises must be reliable. In deductive reasoning, the question is not whether the premises are true or false, but whether the argument is valid or invalid—that is, whether the conclusion follows from the premises without any doubt.

Inductive Reasoning

Induction, however, starts with a series of specific observations that are repeated regularly. From this series, a general conclusion is drawn.... Continue reading "Deductive, Inductive, Analogical Reasoning & Rawls' Justice" »

Philosophical Realism: Ancient to Modern Eras

In universal philosophy, realism predominated until the modern age, forming a significant block within philosophical thought. The first line of argument stems from the characteristics of philosophical realism, which lasted until the sixteenth century, and its opposition to idealism.

Ancient Philosophy: Cosmos and Essence

From the Pre-Socratics, knowledge was applied to answer the question about the arche of physis—the origin of the cosmos—giving more weight to nature itself than to the subject. This explains the Platonic assertion that man is social by nature. According to ancient philosophy, the cosmos governs all, and its origin must be found. Plato found the answer in the Idea of the Good, stating:... Continue reading "Philosophical Realism: From Ancient Roots to Modern Thought" »

Anthropology

Aristotle

Aristotle views man as a being of the physical world. This differs from Plato, for whom there is a large separation between soul and body. When a person dies, he disappears, but the species remains. Aristotle considers the soul in accordance with the species. Each species has a kind of soul that enables a series of functions, which are hierarchical and differentiate us from other species. These functions are three:

• The vegetative function, which is to nurture and reproduce, and is intended for plants.
• The sensory function, which involves movement and feeling and is developed primarily by animals.
• The rational function, which is the search for truth through reason. It is what gives happiness to men.

These functions are in order... Continue reading "Aristotle and Descartes: Contrasting Views on the Human Soul" »

Marx's Humanism: Analysis and Critique of Alienation

To understand Marx's philosophical project and his critique of political economy, we must begin with the idea and importance he attached to humanity.

His critical philosophy was not merely a critique of Left Hegelian philosophers who sought to change reality with words. Marx famously wrote: "The weapon of criticism must be replaced by the criticism of arms." Therefore, criticism must be radical, reaching to humanity itself as the root. Criticism is not confined to theoretical work; it is also an instrument of struggle against the enemies of humanity and exploiters, aiming for the liberation of every individual. For Marx, criticism is revolutionary praxis. (When Marx's daughter asked him to... Continue reading "Marx's Humanism: Alienation and Liberation" »

Cartesian Doubt and Its Underlying Rationale

One of the defining characteristics of Cartesian philosophy is methodical doubt. This rigorous doubt forms the basis of his thought and justifies his method. It's important to note that this isn't skeptical doubt for its own sake; rather, it's a deliberate suspension of previously accepted knowledge for a specific purpose. Descartes establishes three levels of doubt: the level of the senses, the distinction between wakefulness and sleep, and the concept of the "evil genius." All of this is aimed at arriving at certain and indubitable knowledge.

The Unreliability of the Senses

The senses can deceive us, a fact easily observed. We often perceive things differently from how they actually are, such as a... Continue reading "Cartesian Doubt: Unveiling the Foundation of Knowledge" »

What is Meant by Action?

We often perform actions without fully realizing it. An action is a conscious decision we make. It's our intentional behavior.

Involuntary Actions

These actions can be forced upon us, often performed with strength and ignorance due to circumstances.

Voluntary Actions

These actions originate from within the person. They are carried out jointly, sometimes to avoid a greater evil. Strictly speaking, they are conscious and voluntary, though some may be performed out of culpable ignorance.

Elements of Action

Intent

Intent is when we realize something we do routinely.

This can be spontaneous, like hunger, or consciously assumed, like buying a book.

Intentions are consciously accepted inclinations.

Ends and Means

The ends are the desires... Continue reading "Understanding Action, Ethics, and Political Philosophy" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant is a central figure of the Enlightenment. He defines Enlightenment as achieving maturity. Kant advocates for every human being to use Reason to determine their destiny. Freedom lies in the responsible use of Reason. Freedom, responsibility, and moral autonomy are inseparable from the Enlightenment and Reason.

Kant's Moral Philosophy

Kant seeks to understand the moral being of man. He asks what can be considered inherently good without qualification, which is goodwill.

Key Features of Kantian Ethics

A main feature of Kantian ethics is that the weight of morality is on the intention, not the consequences. Reason, for Kant, requires universality and necessity in both pure (theoretical) and practical (moral)... Continue reading "Kant's Enlightenment Philosophy: Ethics and Morality" »

Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Language and Ethics

The Role of Philosophy in the *Tractatus* and *Philosophical Investigations*

According to Wittgenstein, philosophy encourages the clarification of propositions and aims to avoid misleading forms of common language. It is not a science; philosophical propositions, being meaningless, are created by the misunderstanding of language. The method is to "say nothing except what can be said, and whenever someone would say something metaphysical, to demonstrate that he has not given meaning to certain signs." These statements are meaningless as they attempt to exceed the limits of language and the world, and nothing can be said about the world in its entirety. Silence on this field sets the stage for the... Continue reading "Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Ethics and Language Analysis" »

Descartes' Proof of God's Existence

Once certain of one's existence as a thinking being, Descartes proceeds to the second major step of his metaphysics: the proof of the existence of God. It is crucial to understand that merely possessing the idea of an infinite substance does not automatically mean God exists; it only signifies our comprehension of the idea of absolute perfection.

Human reason, by its very nature, is not perfect, as evidenced by doubt and hesitation. A defect is not characteristic of a perfect entity. If we are imperfect creatures, how then could we possess a perfect idea, such as the idea of God?

Levels of Existence in Descartes' Philosophy

Before delving into the proof of God's existence, it is important to note that Descartes... Continue reading "Descartes' Metaphysics: Proving God's Existence" »