Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Fundamental Principles of Self-Governance and Authority

Autonomy

The ability to set one's own standards without influence from external or internal pressures.

Heteronomy

Being under the authority or mandate of another person.

Emancipation

Relates to any action that allows a person or group of people access to a state of autonomy by ceasing subjection to any authority.

Characteristics of Legal and Social Norms

The following terms describe the nature and enforcement mechanisms of rules and mandates:

• Coercibility

The threat to use violence of any kind, with the aim of constraining the behavior of individuals.

• Irrepressibility

A characteristic meaning the rule cannot be enforced by means of force; it must be obeyed spontaneously.

• Bilaterality

The characteristic... Continue reading "Defining Core Concepts in Law, Ethics, and Philosophy" »

The Impact and Legacy of Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy

José Ortega y Gasset is considered one of the most important figures in Spanish philosophy. Although his thinking did not always receive an enthusiastic reception in Spain, Ortega consistently refused to separate his professional and intellectual activity from the circumstances lived in Spain.

Ortega's Public and Academic Life

Alongside his academic pursuits, Ortega sought an extension of philosophy, bringing his approach to the public sphere. A key achievement was the founding of the Revista de Occidente, which began as an editorial project.

Disciples and Exile

Ortega successfully formed a number of disciples, including Julián Marías, José Gaos, Francisco Ayala, Manuel Granell, and María... Continue reading "José Ortega y Gasset: Philosophy, Legacy, and Spanish Context" »

Rationalism: The Primacy of Reason

René Descartes is widely considered the father of rationalism. Other prominent followers of this doctrine include Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

Rationalism posits the following key theses:

1. Geometry as the Model of Knowledge

   Geometry serves as the authentic model of knowledge. From a few axioms, and using deductive reasoning and logical laws, a set of theorems can be derived. For rationalist philosophers, all knowledge must follow this rigorous model.

2. Distrust of Sensory Information

   Rationalism distrusts information about the world obtained through the senses. By contrast, the successes of geometry demonstrate that deductive reasoning can establish and expand knowledge reliably.

   For Descartes, the

Non-Fiction Text Analysis Structure

A structured approach to analyzing non-fiction texts typically involves four main sections:

• Introduction: Presenting the text and context.
• Text Summary (Rendering): Identifying the theme, main arguments, reasons, consequences, and proposed solutions.
• Text Analysis (Findings): Analyzing formal design elements, rhetorical devices, and determining the author's intention.
• Opinion (Assessment): Evaluating the text and the author's stance, followed by a personal assessment or proposed solutions.

1. Introduction

The introduction aims to familiarize the reader with the article and its subject matter by citing essential references (title, author, publication source, and date).

Key Introductory Phrases:

• "The present text (e.

The Problem of Universals

The controversy surrounding universals acquired significant importance during the Middle Ages. The relevance of this philosophical problem is evident when we consider that, for a long time, science was reduced to the universal and necessary. The objective value of science depended on the objective value of such concepts.

A universal, in general, is that which somehow relates to many particulars (such as genera and species). However, to truly know an object is not merely to know it as something universal, but as an individual—covered with a special character. This raises fundamental questions:

• To what extent can a universal concept respond to individual situations?
• Do universal things exist independently of particulars?

Plato's Vision: Philosophy, Politics, and the Academy

Plato (428-347 BC) lived during a period of significant social and political turmoil, stemming from the Peloponnesian Wars between the city-states of Athens and Sparta. This was a time marked by political corruption, evident during both the period of the Thirty Tyrants, who staged a coup in 404 BC, and the subsequent democratic period. Plato criticized the latter as an ignorant majority, prone to mistaken beliefs. The injustices of the oligarchic order and the flaws of democracy compelled Plato to seek a more rational and just approach to governance. He articulated these views in his Seventh Letter, a fundamental document for understanding the authenticity of many of his writings.

Plato famously... Continue reading "Plato's Legacy: Shaping Ancient Greek Philosophy and Politics" »

Abortion

Abortion is the interruption of a pregnancy before the fetus can develop independent living. There are two types of abortion: natural and induced.

Methods of Abortion

Methods include:

1. Suction or Aspiration: First trimester.
2. Dilation and Evacuation: Second trimester.
3. Hysterotomy.
4. Pill RU486.

According to the criminal code of 1995, abortion is illegal, except in some exceptional cases:

• Endangerment of the Mother's Health: If the mother's physical or psychological health is endangered, as ruled by two doctors.
• Pregnancy Resulting from Violation: If the pregnancy is a result of a violation, a doctor's note is not needed, but a complaint is required, and the procedure cannot be performed beyond 12 weeks.
• Fetal Malformation: If there is a presumption

Spanish Grammar: Key Components

Nouns

A noun is a word that refers to animals, people, concepts, and things. Nouns are classified:

• According to their form:
  • Gender: Masculine and feminine
  • Number: Singular and plural
• According to their meaning:
  • Common or proper
  • Concrete or abstract
  • Individual or collective
  • Countable or uncountable
  • Animate or inanimate
• By function: Nucleus of the nominal group

Determinants

Determinants accompany the noun. They are classified as:

• Articles
• Demonstratives
• Possessives
• Indefinites
• Numerals
• Interrogatives

Pronouns

A pronoun refers to the noun and assumes all of its syntactic functions in a sentence. Types of pronouns include:

• Personal
• Demonstrative
• Possessive
• Indefinite
• Numeral
• Interrogative
• Relative

Adjectives

An adjective expresses the qualities... Continue reading "Understanding Spanish Grammar: Nouns, Verbs, and More" »

Nature vs. Culture

Nature

Nature is innate, that which is born because it is genetically preprogrammed or develops in the embryo and fetus.

Culture

Culture is acquired or social learning, from the time when we are born.

Evolution and Species

Evolution

Evolution is the process by which individuals of a species undergo qualitative changes that lead to slowly changing the species from more primitive life forms into more organized ones.

Species

Species refers to each of the groups in which gender divides living beings.

Theories of Evolution

Fixism

Fixism was a theory established in the scientific community and the dominant concept until the nineteenth century.

Transformational Theory

Transformational theory is the first explicit theory of species evolution given... Continue reading "Nature vs. Culture in Human Evolution: Key Concepts" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Abstract Philosophy

Friedrich Nietzsche criticizes philosophers who deny the reality of change and the dynamism of real life, replacing them with "mummified concepts" – a substance always equal for all eternity. He vehemently rejected the lack of historical sense, arguing that denying change renders history meaningless. Nietzsche also criticized what he termed "Egypticism," which he saw as a taste for the eternal and immutable, akin to Egyptian mummies.

Nietzsche and Heraclitus: Embracing Flux

Nietzsche's perspective resonates with Heraclitus's philosophy, which recognizes that reality is multiple and in continuous change and transformation. For Heraclitus, this change is caused by the constant struggle of opposites (... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Metaphysics and the Embrace of Reality" »