Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Defining Action and Intent

Action is defined as doing anything deliberately.

Involuntary Actions

Involuntary actions occur when the agent acts unwillingly, meaning the origin of the action is outside ourselves, and we do not contribute to it. These are typically categorized as:

• Forced Actions: Actions where the agent is unwilling. Example: A person is dragged by the wind.
• Actions by Ignorance: Actions resulting from a lack of knowledge regarding the circumstances. Example: A driver hits someone because they have not seen them.

Types of Intent

Intent can be categorized into two types:

1. Spontaneous Intent: When something happens to me, even if I am not actively seeking it (e.g., an unexpected desire).
2. Consciously Assumed Intent: A deliberate choice or

Cultural Context

Romanticism

Romanticism became the banner of the youth who wanted to spread the revolutionary spirit in politics, philosophy, literature, and the arts. This movement was a cry for freedom, both socially and artistically. The themes, cutting idealistic people, are the exaltation of the individual and privacy.

Artists from this period include Delacroix in painting, Chopin in music, and Victor Hugo in theater. Romanticism idealized history, society, and nature. For this reason, they were branded as evasive and replaced by realism.

Realism

Realism is an art movement concerned with the concrete reality of human beings. Thus, the usual topics are everyday life or the harsh conditions of workers.

In science and technology came breakthroughs... Continue reading "Romanticism, Realism, and Marxism: 19th Century Europe" »

Ratio-Vitalism: Mediating Life and Reason

Ratio-vitalism is a development of perspectivism and an attempt to mediate between two radical perspectives: life (vitality) and reason (rationalism). Vitalism is often ambiguous in both biology and philosophy. In biology, it refers to the distinction between living matter and inert matter. In philosophy, it suggests that reason is not the primary way of higher learning; instead, it is the experience of becoming intimate with things. Ortega y Gasset argues that this reduces philosophy to biology and relegates its method.

The Scope of Ortega's Vitalism

Ortega's vitalism defends the scope of the rational method of knowledge, situating the problem of life at the center. Ratio-vitalism is not against reason... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset: Ratio-Vitalism and Historical Reason" »

Machiavelli's Political Philosophy

What Characteristics Did Machiavelli Attribute to Government?

• A ruler must not prioritize the perceived goodness of people.
• To govern effectively, a ruler may need to act against conventional notions of charity.
• A ruler must act independently, discerning what is truly beneficial or detrimental, according to the circumstances.

Note: Machiavelli's use of terms like "inhuman" or "infidel" should be understood within the historical context of his time and may not reflect modern ethical standards.

What is the Relationship Between Ethics and Politics According to Machiavelli?

Machiavelli posits that ethics and politics are entirely separate. He emphasizes political realism, suggesting that political action often necessitates... Continue reading "Machiavelli's Political Philosophy and Key Concepts in Governance" »

The Quest for Explanations: Beauty and Forces of Nature

The need to find explanations for the beauty of the cosmos and the forces of nature is a fundamental human drive. The inability to find appropriate responses can produce a confusion difficult to bear. To alleviate this anxiety and intellectual restlessness, the first explanations arose from mythology and religion. Nietzsche claimed that human beings preferred nothingness to a lack of belief, and any explanation was better than none.

Judeo-Christian Legend

These explanations appear in the Bible. This work tells that God created the earth in succession: the firmament, the seas, plants, stars, and finally, animals. His work culminated with the creation of man, who was in charge and master of... Continue reading "Origins of the Universe: From Mythology to Modern Science" »

Federico García Lorca's Blood Wedding: An Introduction

Blood Wedding, a tragedy in verse by the Spanish writer Federico García Lorca, was written in 1931. This poetic and theatrical production delves into the analysis of a profound tragic sense, universally framed within the evocative Andalusian landscape. A central theme explored in this powerful drama is the interplay between life and death. Love emerges as the sole force capable of confronting death.

The Central Conflict: A Wedding Betrayed

The work's primary argument revolves around an upcoming wedding set to unite the Bridegroom with the Bride. However, tragedy intervenes, preventing the marriage from being consummated. The Bride, who had suppressed her love for Leonardo, experiences a... Continue reading "Federico García Lorca's Blood Wedding: Themes and Conflict" »

Descartes' Proofs for God's Existence

It is necessary to prove the existence of God without reference to the outside world, only from the analysis of my ideas.

Arguments from the Idea of God

The "cogito ergo sum" gives us the assurance that there are ideas in my mind but does not give us certainty if the objects they represent remain in external reality or not.

The ideas are not different if considered from the point of view of their subjective reality, but when considered from the objective point of view, they are very different from each other.

All these ideas are "caused," and "it is clear that there must be at least as much reality in the cause as in the effect."

The ideas that represent other people or natural things contain nothing so perfect... Continue reading "Descartes on the Existence of God" »

1. Human Nature and Social Being

Man is an animal and a social being. A human being is a creature of nature and a social being living in groups and organizations. The human being differs from other animals by the ability to create and transmit culture through language and by the conscious awareness of life.

2. Human Condition and Person

The person and the human condition: We are a group that shares the same human characteristics. Moreover, human beings are persons: we have the ability to orient ourselves socially and to choose. We are relational; we need others.

Person's Identity and Dimensions

Person's identity: We are all different and unique. Identity is formed by three main dimensions:

• Physical: This depends on our genetics and the biological

Kantian Ethical Formalism

Kantian ethical formalism centers on key characteristics such as autonomy (autonomous ethics), duty (ethical duty), and a formal ethics. According to Kant, humans are sensitive and rational beings. As for reason, humans are free, setting universal purposes to guide their lives.

• Reason gives its own behavior and conduct law, leading to autonomous reason.
• Humans are also beings influenced by feelings.
• One thing is to act in conformity with duty, and another is to act from duty. An action can be done in conformity with duty, but for other purposes or interests.

The moral value lies in the good will, independent of empirical outcomes. Duty is the necessity of an action done out of respect for the law.

Communicative Ethics

Communicative... Continue reading "Key Ethical Frameworks: Kant, Rawls, Hedonism, Utilitarianism" »

Core Vocabulary & Actions

• Cede/Concede: To transfer a thing, action, or right to another.
• Surrender: To give up; to undergo.
• Repair: To fix or mend.
• Beware: To be cautious or wary of; to notice a thing.
• Fix: To make stable or permanent; to repair.
• Frenzy: A state of wild excitement or uncontrolled activity; madness.
• Encourage: To give support, confidence, or hope.
• Large Exaltation: A state of great praise or elevation.
• Thrive: To grow or develop well; to prosper; to increase in size.
• Improve: To make or become better; to progress.
• Prosper: To succeed in material terms; to make money.
• Spur: To ease, incite, or encourage someone to do something. Example: To chop with the spur to the horse.
• Patent: A document granting a right or permission for something.