Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes: Historical, Cultural, and Philosophical Context

René Descartes (1596-1650) was born in La Haye, France. In 1616, he obtained a degree in Law from Poitiers. However, Descartes was disappointed with his education, a sentiment he would later express in *Discourse on Method*. He found scholastic philosophy unsatisfying, although much of the terminology he later used was taken from it. Descartes found satisfaction only in mathematics. Consequently, he made the decision to "completely abandon the study of literature and, determined not to seek another science than that which I could find in myself or in the great book of the world, I spent the rest of my youth traveling, seeing courts and armies, treating people of different moods and... Continue reading "Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Context" »

Analysis of a Journalistic Opinion Piece

Textual Characteristics

This journalistic opinion piece, extracted from a newspaper, explores the subject of ... . The author's primary aim is to present their perspective and persuade the reader of its validity. The text blends expository and argumentative writing styles, explaining events while advocating for a specific viewpoint.

Structure

The text follows a traditional three-part structure:

• Introduction: ...
• Development: ...
• Conclusion: ...

Main Ideas

The central arguments presented are:

• ...
• ...

Further details and explanations complement these core ideas.

Author's Thesis

The author's main contention is that ............................. This thesis is strategically positioned within the text to ... .

Language

Reason and Faith in Aquinas

B: Since Thomas was convinced that faith and reason are harmonized and complementary, he argued that some truths of faith are accessible to reason. For example, we can come to the knowledge of God using only the light of reason. This aligns with what Thomas termed "rational or natural theology." He first proposed a question, then provided opposing arguments. Next, Thomas presented his argument, serving as his defense. In the body of the article, he offers his solution, in this case, the five ways. Finally, he concludes by responding to the opposing arguments. Thomas solved the problem of the relationship between reason and faith, stating that there are two kinds of theology: natural and supernatural. Natural theology... Continue reading "Five Rational Proofs for God's Existence" »

Understanding Utopia: Its Meaning and Impact

In everyday language, we use the word utopia to refer to something desirable yet unattainable—something we desire but that lies beyond our present and even future possibilities. The word 'utopia' literally means 'no-place,' signifying something unreal or nonexistent. This term was first coined by Thomas More in the sixteenth century to describe a fictional island where a perfect society existed. This inherent lack of reality explains the negative connotation often associated with the term today. When proposals for institutional changes are labeled 'utopian,' it frequently implies a disqualification or dismissal.

The Utopian Dimension of Human Existence

The concept of utopia is a constant throughout... Continue reading "Utopia's Enduring Role in Human Society and Thought" »

Features of Civil Society

Civil society designates the mode of organization and structure of society at a particular time of development, existing between the family and the state, within which social groups are displayed.

Marx and Hegel:

Represents the space for expression and the satisfaction of the needs of individuals.

Material covers the exchange of individuals, encompassing all commercial and industrial life.

Its organization is based on production and exchange.

Forms the basis of the state.

This is engineered and regulated by legislation, providing for social rights and civic duties.

Social Contract: Rousseau

Rousseau criticizes previous theories:

Hobbes believes that their form of contract, the contract of submission, denies the natural freedom... Continue reading "Civil Society: Theories, Contracts, and Assumptions" »

Direct and Indirect Voluntary Acts

• Direct Voluntary Act: This refers to an action that is willed and determined by an individual for themselves. In this case, the degree of responsibility is at its maximum. We are entirely responsible for these actions.
• Indirect Voluntary Act: This is when the effect of an action is not directly intended but is a predictable consequence of a voluntary act. As rational and free individuals, we are responsible for our actions and their reasonably foreseeable consequences. Therefore, we are also fully responsible for indirect voluntary acts, although the degree of responsibility may differ. We must assume the consequences of our actions.

Involuntary Acts and Responsibility

• Involuntary Act: An involuntary act is neither

Foundational Concepts in Morality and Ethics

Understanding Morality: Core Concepts

• Moral: Principles of Conduct and Values

  A Moral framework encompasses a set of moral norms (a moral code) and values. The term 'moral' originates from the Latin mores, signifying custom, habit, character, or dwelling. It represents the fundamental structure within which our lives are lived and decisions are made.

• Moral Norms: Guiding Principles of Behavior

  A Moral Norm is a regulative principle of conduct that establishes what we ought to do and what we must avoid to behave morally. These norms invariably express a value. They are prescriptive, meaning they command or forbid specific behaviors, often with implied consequences for adherence or transgression.

• Value:

Descartes' Quest for Absolute Certainty

In the seventeenth century, rationalists and empiricists thus formulated a transcendental philosophical question: What are the limits of knowledge? From the rationalist point of view, deductive scientific developments that took place since the sixteenth century were especially important. René Descartes thus sought to achieve absolute certainty in the metaphysical field, just as mathematics offers irrefutable truths, such as "2 + 2 = 4" or "the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides."

To this end, Descartes undertook the path of methodical doubt. To achieve absolute certainty, one must begin by doubting. This doubt is universal, as it questions all previously held... Continue reading "Descartes' Methodical Doubt: Path to Certainty" »

Politics, Ethics, and Freedom

Politics concerns the governance of citizens. Politics and ethics share a common objective: ethics seeks individual welfare, while politics aims for the collective well-being of the people. According to Aristotle, humans are social and political animals; only beasts and gods are apolitical. Politics enables us to live in society rather than as savages. However, the problem lies in determining who should rule. It's challenging to identify who should hold power because the majority can sometimes impose a "tyranny of the majority," where individual or minority interests suffer. The division of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial) emerged from the 17th and 18th centuries to address the problem of corruption... Continue reading "Politics, Ethics, and Freedom: A Philosophical Examination" »