Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's Superman

The Dionysian Influence

The Dionysian excess and tragic longing permeates Nietzsche's view of humanity. As he states in Beyond Good and Evil, "Man must be educated for war, and woman for the rest of the warrior. All else is madness." Nietzsche's anthropological reflection, while varied, consistently distinguishes between ordinary individuals and great individuals.

Free Spirits vs. Supermen

In Human, All Too Human, Nietzsche refers to distinguished individuals as "free spirits." These individuals are detached and adaptable, capable of embracing new perspectives and actions. They stand in contrast to "free thinkers," the Enlightenment figures of the 18th century who fought against the feudal regime and advocated for egalitarianism.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Superman: A Philosophical Examination" »

Current Rating of the Text

The utopia of the ideal state in Plato's Republic introduces valuable principles, some of which seem lost today:

• The rule of reason
• Concern for the public good to ensure responsible governance, not interested in personal use of the position (a stance against corruption seen in other political systems)
• The importance of education for both rulers and citizens
• Government involvement in the happiness of citizens
• The equality of women relative to men

However, we also find reprehensible aspects, taking into account the risks of this totalitarian system. If everything is driven by power, such as private property and the family (spouse and children), and considering issues of interest in the educational program, we seem to be overriding... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Reason, Governance, and the Ideal State" »

Philosophical Concepts

Observational Consequences

Consequences derived from a general law, which may not be universally agreed upon by all observers.

Practical Philosophy

The branch of philosophy that reflects on human action.

Socialization

The process through which individuals learn and prepare to live according to social norms.

Freedom

The state of an act not being dictated by an external entity or individual.

Disclaimer

Providing a rationale for an act or event as its author.

Institution

A human group organization recognized by law and custom.

Device

A small-scale institution where specific types of subjectivity are created through practical actions and discourse.

Subject

A being capable of maintaining a relationship with the external world.

Moral

Derived... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Philosophy and Social Sciences" »

The Shift from Renaissance to Baroque

Don Quixote embodies the transition from the optimism of the Renaissance to the disillusionment of the Baroque. In the first part of the novel, he is optimistic. However, in the second part, following experiences like the Cave of Montesinos and facing disappointment, he becomes more pessimistic, ultimately repudiating his chivalric ideals.

The Baroque Era: A Time of Disenchantment

The Baroque period reflects a sense of disappointment following the Renaissance's optimism.

Structure and Narrative

The novel's structure is accumulative (adventure + adventure). However, due to its length, there's a shift in the first part: Don Quixote initially journeys alone, but later travels with Sancho Panza, enriching the narrative... Continue reading "Don Quixote: From Renaissance Optimism to Baroque Disillusionment" »

What is Knowledge?

Knowledge is justified true belief. To apply the theoretical rationale, the knowledge obtained has the following features:

• Knowledge implies conviction. States of doubt or ignorance do not correspond to those of knowledge. Knowledge requires certainty that ensures safety and having good reason to believe something.
• Knowledge is a belief.
• Knowledge is true. If we believe in something that is false, it cannot be ascertained.
• Knowledge is justified. A belief held without good reasons cannot be considered knowledge.

Attitudes Towards Knowledge

• Ignorance: When it is unknown whether a statement is true or false.
• Doubt: If one is not totally convinced of something.
• Conviction: When one is certain of something.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking... Continue reading "Understanding Knowledge and Rationality" »

Historical and Sociocultural Context of the Enlightenment in Germany

Kant, one of the most important figures of the 18th century, along with the American and French Revolutions, defined the Enlightenment as the mental attitude by which man decides to leave his self-imposed immaturity, using his reason without the guidance of another. The Encyclopedia was a key work of this period.

The German Enlightenment

The German Enlightenment had its peculiarities. There was an increase in population and a relative improvement in the economy (higher agricultural yields and the inception of industry). Germany was divided into small states with an almost feudal structure (nobility, bourgeoisie, peasants).

The state of Prussia stood out. After economic and... Continue reading "German Enlightenment: History, Society, and Philosophy" »

Descartes' Method: Seeking Certainty in Knowledge

Descartes sought a method to make it impossible to mistake the false for the true, progressively leading to the knowledge of everything that can be known. This method has its foundation in reason, guaranteeing the right conduct of reason, and is accessible to all. Human knowledge can proceed from experience, but it can be tricky. You can see evil, hear evil, or be the victim of hallucinations. In knowledge gained through experience, the subject is responsive and behaves passively. There is a possibility of error.

So, human knowledge can also come from... deduction, which provides absolutely certain knowledge with no possibility of doubt. This is the procedure followed by mathematics, and which... Continue reading "Descartes' Method: Rules for Reasoning" »

Aristotle's Philosophy: Virtue, Ethics, and Happiness

Aristotle addresses the concept of virtue in his ethics as a means to achieve the highest good: happiness. He distinguishes between intellectual virtues, attained through the practice of contemplative life, and ethical virtues, cultivated through the habit of acting and aligning our behavior with the golden mean between two extremes—one of excess and one of deficiency.

Aristotle's View on Happiness and Perfection

Aristotle posits that virtue guarantees the enjoyment of happiness because every being achieves perfection within its kind. Happiness is derived from engaging in activities specific to one's nature. Given that human nature is defined by its specific form, the rational soul, a life... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Cosmology, and Knowledge" »

Descartes

René Descartes, alongside Kant, is arguably the most important thinker in modern philosophy. Living in the 17th century and dividing his time between France, Holland, and Sweden, Descartes is considered the founder and greatest exponent of Rationalism. A fundamental concern of his thought was the construction of a robust philosophical method.

The basis of the Cartesian method, which, when applied to metaphysics, forms the foundation of knowledge, lies in mathematics (Descartes dedicated part of his work to this field). He concluded that only what can be reduced to mathematical motions can be truly understood. This highlights the importance Descartes placed on reason (as opposed to tradition, experience, or faith), which he identified... Continue reading "Introduction to Plato and Descartes" »