Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Immanuel Kant: Synthesizing Knowledge and Ethics

Immanuel Kant was an eighteenth-century German philosopher who lived during the Enlightenment. Kant attempted a synthesis between rationalism and empiricism, offering a new way of interpreting human knowledge. He sought to answer the question: "Is metaphysics possible as a science?" and to analyze existing ethics to create his own.

Critique of Pre-Kantian Ethical Systems

Kant analyzed ethics preceding his time, determining that these were theological, teleological, or materialist, because they prescribed actions based on desired outcomes. This is because any theological ethics is based on the idea that there are good things for human beings and therefore begins to consider what the highest good... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Ethical Framework: Duty and Categorical Imperative" »

Life as Radical Being-in-the-World

For Ortega y Gasset, life is not merely existence, but coexistence with the world. He uses reason to understand our experiences and find meaning in life. Ortega y Gasset summarizes the sense of life as follows:

1. Life is radical being.
2. To live is to find oneself in the world.
3. Living involves taking care of something.
4. Life is a continuous chore.
5. Life is a problem.
6. Living is being found.
7. Life is coexistence and cohabitation.

These categories of life are vital. Life is a continuous becoming. As Ortega y Gasset says, "man is not nature but history."

Man in Time and the Mission of Our Times

Man lives in a given time, and the task of our times is always a mission. Every era has its own way of life and its own tempo. Generations... Continue reading "José Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy of Life and Times" »

Plato, Aristotle, and Kant: Political Society and Human Development

Shared Perspective: The Necessity of Political Society

• All three philosophers agree that political society is essential for integral human development. For them, man only becomes fully human within a political society or the State.

Key Differences in Political Philosophy

1. Origin and Nature of the State

• Greek Thought (Plato, Aristotle): Man is inherently a social and political animal. Society is considered natural, responding to human nature.
• Modern Thought (Kant): The State originates from an agreement or arrangement among individuals.

2. The Ultimate Purpose of the State

• Greek Thought: The primary end of the State is ethical.
  • Plato: To cultivate just and virtuous citizens. Only within

Plato's Anthropology

For Plato, the soul (psyche) is the principle of life in the body, an element opposite to embodiment. The soul is immortal and belongs to the intelligible world, while the body is mortal and belongs to the sensible world. The body attracts desires, and one can liberate themselves from these bonds through philosophy.

Drawing on Orphic and Pythagorean influences, Plato defends the soul's immortality and its transmigration from one body to another. In the dialogue Phaedrus, he explains the nature of the soul using the famous myth of the winged chariot. A charioteer drives a carriage with two horses: one is good and beautiful, the other is not. The less noble horse is attracted to the material world and destabilizes the carriage,... Continue reading "Plato's Anthropology and Ontology: Soul, Body, and Ideas" »

Plato's Ethical Framework: The Tripartite Soul

Plato's concept of 'the Good' is intrinsically linked to a hierarchical structure. This concept represents true reality and the essence of things, serving as the ultimate guide for our conduct. The objective of ethics, according to Plato, is to align our lives with 'the Good'.

Functions of the Soul's Parts

Plato posits that the human soul is composed of three distinct parts, each with its own function:

• The Rational Soul: Possesses the knowledge of true reality. It fulfills its function when it is prudent and wise, capable of discerning what is good and what is detrimental.
• The Irascible Soul: Must fulfill its role as an assistant, helping the rational soul impose its designs upon the concupiscible soul.

Argument

An argument is offered from the subjective viewpoint of an issuer on a topic. Its purpose is to influence and convince the receiver of the validity of its reasoning, thus dominating the conative or appellative function.

To persuade the receiver, the sender selects arguments, reasons, and evidence supporting their opinion. Objections to opposing arguments, called counterarguments, can also be used.

Elements and Structure of Argumentative Text

Argumentative texts have a logical and orderly structure. They are organized around a main idea developed in the body of the argument and end with a conclusion.

• Thesis

  It is the main idea around which the text is organized. The location of the thesis determines the structure of the argumentative text.

Utilitarianism: Happiness and the Common Good

Utilitarianism, closely related to ethical theories like eudaimonia and hedonism, defends the human purpose of happiness or pleasure. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) considered that actions and regulations should be judged by the Principle of Utility, or the Principle of Greatest Happiness. This is a teleological ethics, valuing actions as a means to an end, based on the consequences that result from them: an action is good when its consequences are useful (bringing us closer to happiness), and it is not bad if its implications do not take us away from happiness or pleasure. The principle of morality is, therefore, the greatest happiness (pleasure) for as many living beings as possible.

According to... Continue reading "Major Ethical Frameworks: Mill, Kant, Habermas" »

The Etymology and Definition of Philosophy

Philosophy derives from the Greek words: Philo (love) and Sophia (wisdom). Its origin lies in the inherent trend, by the nature of man, to know (intellectual curiosity). There is in man the need to understand and explain the world and its phenomena.

Characteristics of Philosophy

1. It defines philosophy as the knowledge seeking the beginning of things.
2. The questioning of philosophy tends to immerse man in fears and anxieties.
3. It is considered a science because it is the most universal science that can exist, studying both material and spiritual beings.
4. Using philosophy, humanity reaffirms its existence as a rational being, distinct from things and animals.
5. Due to the many questions philosophy addresses, it has

Plato's Political Theory

6.1. Justice and the Ideal Community

Plato's ideal community aims to build a polis where justice (dike) prevails, as described in The Republic and Laws. The goal is not for a few to be happy, but for all citizens to thrive. To achieve this, several steps are necessary:

1. A clear understanding of justice (as explored in Apology and the early books of The Republic).
2. Overcoming tyrannical conceptions of politics, where some rule by force or deception.
3. Educating both citizens and politicians.
4. Ensuring that the most intelligent and generous individuals are empowered.

6.2. Levels of Organization: Soul and City

There is a parallel between the organization of the soul and the city, with a similar three-class division:

• Archontes (Rulers)