Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Political Theory

6.1. Justice and the Ideal Community

Plato's ideal community aims to build a polis where justice (dike) prevails, as described in The Republic and Laws. The goal is not for a few to be happy, but for all citizens to thrive. To achieve this, several steps are necessary:

1. A clear understanding of justice (as explored in Apology and the early books of The Republic).
2. Overcoming tyrannical conceptions of politics, where some rule by force or deception.
3. Educating both citizens and politicians.
4. Ensuring that the most intelligent and generous individuals are empowered.

6.2. Levels of Organization: Soul and City

There is a parallel between the organization of the soul and the city, with a similar three-class division:

• Archontes (Rulers)

Nietzsche's Philosophy: The Will to Power and the Dionysian Spirit

For Friedrich Nietzsche, the Will to Power is fundamentally expressed through the Dionysian spirit of humanity. He argues that a crucial balance must be maintained between this instinct and its counterpart (the Apollonian, though not explicitly named here, is implied by the need for balance). Following the ancient Greeks, Nietzsche believed that the profound thinking of the body has been largely overlooked in Western culture. Unlike Western thought, the Greeks never despised the body; they understood it as a mere discipline of feelings and drives, not something to be suppressed or ignored.

Nihilism: From Decadence to Affirmation

Nietzsche's concept of nihilism describes a world... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Core Concepts: Will to Power, Nihilism, Eternal Recurrence" »

David Hume's Critique of Rational Morality

Hume's Criticisms of Rational Morality

Sentiment as the Foundation of Morality

Hume believed that reason can discern whether something is good or bad, but it is unable to influence human behavior. Therefore, reason cannot be the sole source of good and evil. One example Hume provides is that of ingratitude. He argues that ingratitude is considered a significant moral transgression, especially when it harms the benefactor. What condemns such a horrible attitude? It is not merely an argument, but an inner feeling. This illustrates that similar actions in other kingdoms (animal and plant) do not evoke the same moral rejection. For example, when a tree drops a seed and grows into another, often surpassing... Continue reading "Hume's Ethics: The Foundation of Moral Sentiment" »

David Hume: Moral Emotivism and the Foundation of Ethics

Location: D. Hume belongs to the period of modern philosophy, namely the current empiricist who argues that the origin and limits of knowledge is experience. D. Hume tried to achieve for human science what Newton did for the natural sciences. On the other hand, he defended the theory of moral emotivism against theories that placed reason as the foundation of morality.

Theme: To make moral judgments about someone, we turn away from domestic courts and go for a universal principle of human constitution itself with which we agree.

Ideas:

1. When someone calls another a rival, opponent, or adversary, they are expressing feelings from their particular circumstances.
2. When we say of someone that they

The Natural, Cultural, and Social Dimensions of Humanity

The Natural and Cultural in Us

Humans exist within two realms: the natural and the cultural. We are a part of nature, subject to its laws and realities. Yet, we also inhabit a world of our own making – the realm of culture, built through learning and social interaction. Anthropology distinguishes between natural behaviors, transmitted genetically, and cultural behaviors, learned socially.

The biological distinction between genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable characteristics) highlights how individuals are the result of interactions between their innate nature and their environment.

• Nature: Innate, genetically programmed traits.
• Culture: Acquired through social learning.

Paleontology... Continue reading "Human Evolution: A Biocultural Journey" »

On Self-Knowledge and the Origin of Moral Prejudices

We know that we are strangers to ourselves; we ourselves are strangers to ourselves. This is a good foundation. We have not sought ever—how could it happen that one day we were to meet? It is rightly said: 'Where your treasure is, there your heart is.' Our treasure is where the hives are based on our knowledge. We are always coming to them—winged animals born and honey gatherers of the spirit—we take care of itself heart of one thing: of "bringing home" something.

In regard, moreover, to life, the so-called "experience"—who of us has even been serious enough for them? Or had enough time? I fear that in such cases we have ever paid good attention "to the question." It just happens that... Continue reading "Self-Knowledge and Moral Prejudices: An Introspection" »

Plato's Republic: Chapter VII - Allegory of the Cave

I. The Cave: Knowledge of the material world. Prisoner's release and passage from "eikasía" to "pistis."

II. Rise and Progressive Knowledge: "Dianoia" - the world outside the cave: the intelligible world. "Noesis" or knowledge of the Good: the cause of all that exists.

III. Happiness of the Released Prisoner: Attained through wisdom. Compassion for those who remain prisoners of ignorance, unwilling to leave the cave.

IV. The Danger of Enlightenment: The enlightened one knows that attempts to free others and lead them to truth would be met with ridicule and potentially death.

V. First Interpretation of Plato's Allegory:

• Section One: The sensible world view = the cave. The fire in the cave = the

Descartes' Method of Doubt

To construct this imaginary tree, we start by looking into metaphysics, a foothold firm and sure, an absolute truth on which it can rely to keep on climbing. For this, a method that uses the idea as a guide: the method of doubt or the evidence. It has four rules:

1. Evidence: Accept as true only the obvious (intuitive). Everything has to possess two obvious characteristics: clarity and distinction.
2. Analysis: Break down problems into simple parts, do not address them in complex ways.
3. Synthesis: After analyzing the simple parts, rebuild the complex and confirm or not its validity.
4. Enumeration: Check (list) all our steps to make sure that we were not wrong.

The Process of Doubt

I suspect that it remains high, especially considering... Continue reading "Descartes' Method of Doubt and the Existence of God" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Language and Metaphysics

Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy offers a profound critique of language and truth, even acknowledging a multiple and plural reality. This stands in stark contrast to the criticism he waged against traditional metaphysics, which posited that things of highest value reside in another world, characterized by being good, real, static, or false. Yet, Nietzsche asserts that no such division exists; it is merely an invention of philosophers, heavily influenced by Socrates and Plato.

Challenging Western Philosophical Tradition

Nietzsche believed that the biggest mistake of Western culture lies in its attempt to establish rationality based on the immobility of being, a concept self-invented by Plato. This... Continue reading "Unpacking Nietzsche: Values, Nihilism, and the Übermensch" »

Introduction to the Scientific Revolution

A. The Paradigm Shift

The origin of modern science is rooted in the Renaissance Scientific Revolution. This revolution began prominently in astronomy, where Copernicus initiated the transition from the old view to the modern one.

Contrasting Cosmological Views

The shift involved moving away from the Aristotelian model:

• Aristotelian View: Held that the cosmos was a finite, closed unit consisting of two worlds: the sublunary and supralunar. These worlds were subject to different laws and composed of different elements and compounds.
• Modern View: Maintains that the cosmos is an open, perhaps infinite, set, consisting of the same basic components, governed by the same laws, and the Earth is only one element of