Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Justice: Under a general, stable, and perfect order of a whole, justice exists in the individual soul or the state, where the parts perform their specific function in an appropriate manner and according to their deserved power.

The Good: Plato's idea of the Good is the first of the ideas in dignity and power, comparable to the sun. It is the cause of being and intelligibility of ideas, as well as our knowledge of them. The knowledge of the Good ends the dialectic and the formation of governing ideals.

Pleasure: Plato finds meaning in and reacts against sensual enjoyment of the body. According to Plato, not all pleasures are good or beneficial.

Intelligence: Used in the sense of intellectual activity in general. It is not enough to think and... Continue reading "Understanding Key Concepts in Plato's Philosophy" »

Natural Law and the Social Contract

Thinkers spoke of a positive law, universal and prior to any other. Its defenders, the Stoics Zeno and Chrysippus (c. 3rd century BCE), maintained the theory of a state of nature, the same for everyone. In his De Legibus, Cicero (1st century BCE) speaks of the naturalis societas inter homines and ius in natura positum. Seneca conceived of society as a product of nature. This idea was taken up by later Roman legislators. In the Middle Ages, it lived on in the minds of Christian philosophers. In De Regimine Principum, Aquinas argues that the exercitium of authority is vested in the people and that it is this which confers it. The government, instituted by the community, may be toppled if it becomes tyrannical.... Continue reading "Natural Law, Social Contract, and the Rise of Liberalism" »

Christian Ethics: Middle Ages

From the Christian perspective, man is a creation of God, and therefore, God becomes the ultimate goal, the supreme good of man. Man has to go to Him all his life to reach contemplation in another life, where he will find happiness. In St. Thomas Aquinas's philosophy, the concept of natural law took a leading role, since it is a law that exists in all humans, and it dictates what to do. This law coincides with the Ten Commandments.

Modern and Contemporary Ethics: Utilitarianism

David Hume denies that moral rules are justified by reason. Instead, he believes they depend on sentiment, as it is sentiment that leads man to talk about good and bad behavior. Someone endorses something if they like it, and vice versa. When... Continue reading "Christian Ethics and Political Power: Origins and Evolution" »

Kant's Philosophical Foundations

Immanuel Kant was born in Germany in 1724.

Historical Context

From modernity to the Enlightenment: The pre-revolutionary France was ilustrado. Despotism reigned. In England, however, the king reigns but does not rule.

Revolutions Illustrated

• Glorious Revolution in England (1688)
• Independence of the Colonies (1776)
• The French Revolution (1789)

In Germany, despotism prevailed. Kant faced censorship problems during this time.

Cultural Context

The Enlightenment was a new cultural, political, social, and educational movement that gradually spread across Europe and America.

• The Rise of the bourgeoisie and early steps of liberalism.
• Confidence in reason.
• Confidence in education and knowledge.
• Confidence in progress.

Philosophical

Human Rights: Basic Requirements

Universal

These are basic requirements for anyone who wants to be recognized as such. These requirements state that every person deserves the highest respect and consideration. Therefore, you should recognize all human beings without exception. Every human being must be treated as such, as someone who has the same dignity as others. Universality is the requirement. Please refresh, although echoed in many places, they are not recognized yet.

Preferential

That is, if they conflict with other rights, they have priority and must be protected as a priority. For example, the right to life and health are more important than other secondary rights.

Imprescriptible

That is, they do not expire or prescribe. If they have no... Continue reading "Understanding Human Rights: Principles and Actions" »

Communication, Signs, and Texts

Communication is the process by which an issuer transmits a message to a receiver. A sign is something that suggests the idea of something else. A text is a complete message that is transmitted orally or in writing.

Types of Text

• Informative: Informs us of facts.
• Persuasive: Aims to convince the receiver of an idea.
• Prescriptive: Tells us something (e.g., a manual on how to do something).
• Literary: Tries to create an impression or aesthetic experience.

Classes of Text According to the Speaker

• Narrative: Tells a real or fictitious account of facts.
• Descriptive: Displays traits that define people or objects.
• Expository: Explains facts, concepts, or phenomena.
• Argumentative: Defends a viewpoint with reasoning.

Classes of nouns:

Community and Reciprocity

The myth of Protagoras distinguishes human groups based on community. It blurs the line between public and private spheres. A community is a group of people with shared beliefs and values, willing to compromise for collective goods. Relationships within a community are direct, multilateral, and encompass various functions.

Generalized Reciprocity: Primarily occurs in domestic settings. It involves exchanging goods or services without immediate return, fixed prices, or a need for balanced trade.

Balanced Reciprocity: Exists between different groups, often expanding beyond blood relatives, within a village or tribal context.

Society and This

Life in large societies creates a constant tension between the desire for social... Continue reading "Community, Reciprocity, and Justice: Exploring Social Order and Legal Theories" »

Civil Society vs. Political Society

Locke's Distinction and the Liberal State

Locke was the first philosopher to distinguish between civil society and political society, emphasizing the need for a liberal state to protect individual liberties. Hegel's liberal thought assigns the state the task of applying universal goodwill to particular situations. In present-day democratic societies, civil society is considered the most suitable environment for individuals to exercise their liberties.

Naturalistic Theory

Naturalistic theories posit that society precedes the individual, arguing that society is a necessary condition for human life. Several prominent philosophers have supported this concept:

1. Plato argued that humans are not self-sufficient and

Understanding Morality and Ethics

Morality: The set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given time.

Ethics: The theoretical reflection on the behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.

Conscious acts mean that the subject must clearly know what they are doing. Voluntary acts mean that the subject must want to do what they do, choose between various options, and choose without fear or coercion.

Aristotle

Property: That by which human beings work, not as a means to get something, but as an end in itself.

Happiness: Involves the exercise of reason.

Moral Understanding: The force that leads human beings to act in ways that achieve the nominated property.

Epicurus

Seek pleasure through reason and prudence.

Nature: Overcoming... Continue reading "Understanding Morality, Ethics, and Key Philosophies" »