Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Civilization

Nietzsche's philosophy includes a significant critique of Western culture, denying many of the traditional cultural and philosophical foundations of Western civilizations. The characteristics of this criticism are:

• Method: Psychological analysis of genealogical form to research the development and conditions in which moral values arise.
• Diagnosis: Western culture is steeped in nihilism, leading to its own self-destruction.
• Common Enemy: Christianity.

Nihilism: A Diagnosis

Nihilism, as used by Nietzsche, criticizes any doctrine that denies the values he considers important. It has two meanings in his work:

1. Passive Nihilism: Decadence and decline of the spirit's power.
2. Active Nihilism: The growing power of

Logic and Argumentation

Aristotle and the Science of Logic

The creator of logic as a science was Aristotle.

Sophistry and Fallacies

Sophistry: False arguments

Fallacies: Look real but are falsehoods.

Steps for a Valid Argument

1. An argument needs two declarative sentences to be valid.
2. It must have two premises with a middle ground.
3. The average of the two premises must have the same meaning and extent in both.

Types of Arguments and Propositions

Aristotle identified different types of arguments and propositions:

• A: Universal, Affirmative: All human beings are rational.
• E: Universal, Negative: No talking dog.
• I: Particular, Affirmative: John is an architect.
• O: Particular, Negative: Juan does not laugh.

Conclusion Validity

The conclusion is not valid if at least... Continue reading "Logic, Arguments, and Freedom: An Exploration" »

1 Anthropological Argument

Religious Knowledge: Understanding the Human Experience

Religious knowledge delves into the complexity of the human experience. It clarifies the meaning and rationale behind human activities such as rituals, prayer, sacrifice, silence, and action. These activities constitute fundamental models of human behavior.

Historical Significance

In history, religious beliefs have had a significant impact. Understanding modern European history requires acknowledging the role of religious struggles throughout time.

Cultural Significance

Religious knowledge informs philosophical anthropology, highlighting the sacred as a universal dimension. The origins of culture are rooted in experiences and beliefs.

Intercultural Dialogue

Inter-religious... Continue reading "Religious Knowledge: A Humanistic Approach to Education" »

Critique of Pure Reason: Transcendental Dialectics

Transcendental Dialectical Reason. Pure Reason, at the beginning of the second part of the logic, states that the dialectic is the logic of illusion and delusion. Phenomena are different, but here it is transcendental illusion that occurs when reason goes beyond experience as a natural tendency. That's when reason falls into errors. We must discover and eliminate them. The field of science is limited to the experience of acting, so sensitive and understanding as knowledge sources. Reason is beset by questions that it cannot avoid, that it feels compelled to go beyond, a trend in its tendency produces unifying ideas. Similar to the sensitivity, reason comprehends sensible intuitions about how... Continue reading "Critique of Pure Reason: Transcendental Dialectics & Metaphysics" »

Spanish Romantic Prose in the Early 19th Century

Although high-quality literary prose existed in Spain during the early 19th century, with notable exceptions like Larra, this period was crucial for the later emergence and consolidation of the realist novel. During the first decades of the 19th century, a publishing web was brewing, producing newspapers and books. This made not only the translation of novels profitable but also their original writing. Romantic prose developed late and hesitantly in Spain. The romantic prose genre itself was the historical novel, although other stories with romantic, sentimental, or horror content were also published. The serial novel significantly increased readership. It also conditioned the form and structure... Continue reading "Spanish Romantic Prose and Mariano José de Larra's Works" »

Between Good and Evil: Exploring Human Ethics

In animal life, the perpetuation of the species is ensured through ingenious mechanisms. However, humans yearn for something more: the perpetuation and spread of the unique. As Saint Augustine said, man represents a new beginning, a model defined by singularities. Hegel posited that thinking about life is the task, and valuing actions is the way to value life. Can we say there is a way of life?

We call 'art' the skillful practice in a particular field. Its general principles can be learned, but its highest levels of excellence lack precise rules and can only be admired in the exercise of outstanding individuals. Once learned, art is not yet fully mastered. The art of living, if we accept it, may be... Continue reading "Exploring Ethics: From Ancient Wisdom to Modern Concepts" »

Myth - Logos:

In the 6th century BC, a new set of ideas appeared in Greece. Rational thought emerged to explain the world, human beings, and their behavior. This challenged the power of mythological explanations, favoring explanations based on a new, rational method. This new method is characterized by:

• Having a critical attitude.
• Using criteria, principles, and logic when arguing.
• Justifying and providing arguments.

Relationship between Science and Philosophy:

Originally, philosophers were called "physicists," and their subject was Nature. While the forces of nature were personified, their performance was unpredictable and capricious. A clear example of the relationship between science and nature is that Democritus was a philosopher who defended... Continue reading "From Myth to Logos: Philosophy & Science Origins" »

Kant and Enlightenment: Key Concepts

The 18th century, the century of Enlightenment, was decisive for the history of the West. In this century, the concept of rationality and human questioning arose: What is man? Philosophers investigated the possibilities and limits of man. A set of improvements in politics and in the treatment of people occurred, preceding the French Revolution, as people fought for rights, freedoms, peace, justice, and tolerance. Immanuel Kant was an enlightened thinker who defended these precepts.

Born in Konigsberg (Germany) in 1724, within a humble family that professed German Protestant pietism, Kant held profound moral and religious values. He dedicated his life to studying and teaching. At the university, he became interested... Continue reading "Kant and Enlightenment: Key Concepts Explained" »

Analysis of 'The House of Bernarda Alba'

The House of Bernarda Alba is an avant-garde play from the twentieth century. It is one of Federico García Lorca's most popular works, exploring themes such as social class distinctions, the role of women in society, traditions, conservative morality, Bernarda's authoritarianism, and her daughters' desire for freedom.

Social Class and Relationships

As in previous centuries, the distinction between social classes is a prominent theme. In this work, it is clearly represented by Bernarda and Poncia. Although they have known each other since childhood, Bernarda makes clear her superior status, emphasizing the distance between them. Bernarda speaks with contempt about those she considers beneath her, stating,... Continue reading "Analysis of Social Themes in 'The House of Bernarda Alba'" »

Descartes' Philosophy: Rationalism and the Cartesian Method

Rationalism

Descartes was the founder of rationalism, which posits that reason is the superior source of knowledge and provides us with truths.

Cartesian Method

Descartes' conception advocated for the unity of knowledge, meaning all knowledge is based on reason. However, it is necessary to understand its structure to achieve it. To do this, he took mathematics as a model and used the appropriate method. Reason is based on intuition, which enables simple concepts without error, and deduction, which is deriving knowledge from several intuitions. The discourse of the method consists of:

• **Evidence:** Nothing can be taken as true without knowing what it is.
• **Analysis:** Divide complex problems