Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Deductive, Inductive, and Analogical Reasoning

When we reason, we use two primary methods: deduction and induction.

Deductive Reasoning

If we start from accepted and reliable premises and infer partial conclusions, we use deductive reasoning. Deductive arguments are useful because, if well-constructed, they are necessarily true. Every good argument from premises must be reliable. In deductive reasoning, the question is not whether the premises are true or false, but whether the argument is valid or invalid—that is, whether the conclusion follows from the premises without any doubt.

Inductive Reasoning

Induction, however, starts with a series of specific observations that are repeated regularly. From this series, a general conclusion is drawn.... Continue reading "Deductive, Inductive, Analogical Reasoning & Rawls' Justice" »

Anthropology

Aristotle

Aristotle views man as a being of the physical world. This differs from Plato, for whom there is a large separation between soul and body. When a person dies, he disappears, but the species remains. Aristotle considers the soul in accordance with the species. Each species has a kind of soul that enables a series of functions, which are hierarchical and differentiate us from other species. These functions are three:

• The vegetative function, which is to nurture and reproduce, and is intended for plants.
• The sensory function, which involves movement and feeling and is developed primarily by animals.
• The rational function, which is the search for truth through reason. It is what gives happiness to men.

These functions are in order... Continue reading "Aristotle and Descartes: Contrasting Views on the Human Soul" »

Cartesian Doubt and Its Underlying Rationale

One of the defining characteristics of Cartesian philosophy is methodical doubt. This rigorous doubt forms the basis of his thought and justifies his method. It's important to note that this isn't skeptical doubt for its own sake; rather, it's a deliberate suspension of previously accepted knowledge for a specific purpose. Descartes establishes three levels of doubt: the level of the senses, the distinction between wakefulness and sleep, and the concept of the "evil genius." All of this is aimed at arriving at certain and indubitable knowledge.

The Unreliability of the Senses

The senses can deceive us, a fact easily observed. We often perceive things differently from how they actually are, such as a... Continue reading "Cartesian Doubt: Unveiling the Foundation of Knowledge" »

What is Meant by Action?

We often perform actions without fully realizing it. An action is a conscious decision we make. It's our intentional behavior.

Involuntary Actions

These actions can be forced upon us, often performed with strength and ignorance due to circumstances.

Voluntary Actions

These actions originate from within the person. They are carried out jointly, sometimes to avoid a greater evil. Strictly speaking, they are conscious and voluntary, though some may be performed out of culpable ignorance.

Elements of Action

Intent

Intent is when we realize something we do routinely.

This can be spontaneous, like hunger, or consciously assumed, like buying a book.

Intentions are consciously accepted inclinations.

Ends and Means

The ends are the desires... Continue reading "Understanding Action, Ethics, and Political Philosophy" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant is a central figure of the Enlightenment. He defines Enlightenment as achieving maturity. Kant advocates for every human being to use Reason to determine their destiny. Freedom lies in the responsible use of Reason. Freedom, responsibility, and moral autonomy are inseparable from the Enlightenment and Reason.

Kant's Moral Philosophy

Kant seeks to understand the moral being of man. He asks what can be considered inherently good without qualification, which is goodwill.

Key Features of Kantian Ethics

A main feature of Kantian ethics is that the weight of morality is on the intention, not the consequences. Reason, for Kant, requires universality and necessity in both pure (theoretical) and practical (moral)... Continue reading "Kant's Enlightenment Philosophy: Ethics and Morality" »

Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Language and Ethics

The Role of Philosophy in the *Tractatus* and *Philosophical Investigations*

According to Wittgenstein, philosophy encourages the clarification of propositions and aims to avoid misleading forms of common language. It is not a science; philosophical propositions, being meaningless, are created by the misunderstanding of language. The method is to "say nothing except what can be said, and whenever someone would say something metaphysical, to demonstrate that he has not given meaning to certain signs." These statements are meaningless as they attempt to exceed the limits of language and the world, and nothing can be said about the world in its entirety. Silence on this field sets the stage for the... Continue reading "Wittgenstein's Philosophy: Ethics and Language Analysis" »

Descartes' Proof of God's Existence

Once certain of one's existence as a thinking being, Descartes proceeds to the second major step of his metaphysics: the proof of the existence of God. It is crucial to understand that merely possessing the idea of an infinite substance does not automatically mean God exists; it only signifies our comprehension of the idea of absolute perfection.

Human reason, by its very nature, is not perfect, as evidenced by doubt and hesitation. A defect is not characteristic of a perfect entity. If we are imperfect creatures, how then could we possess a perfect idea, such as the idea of God?

Levels of Existence in Descartes' Philosophy

Before delving into the proof of God's existence, it is important to note that Descartes... Continue reading "Descartes' Metaphysics: Proving God's Existence" »

The Dawn of Modernity: A Philosophical Shift

The modern era, beginning in the Renaissance in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and culminating in the Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment, marked a significant departure from traditional thought. Modernity is characterized by the decline of the Christian conception of the world. Modern philosophy developed a series of ideas and concepts that were incompatible with Christian thought. The idea of modernity is fundamentally an idea of progress, whereas Christianity is rooted in the idea of humanity. Enlightenment philosophers believed that history was a march towards the realization of an increasingly rational and infinite life.

Reason: A Cornerstone of Modern Thought

Reason emerged as a key idea... Continue reading "Foundations of Modern Philosophy: From Descartes to Kant" »

Fundamental Values and Societal Harmony

• The value of life
• Duties to the community
• Power and its exercise
• The citizen and the weak
• The afterlife, death, and gods
• Ways of resolving conflicts
• Property, its ownership, and distribution
• Sexuality, procreation, and family
• Dealing with foreigners and differences

Assessing solutions: Human beings need to know the best solutions, which better respect the fundamental values of humanity and can provide a more just social reality.

• Morality: It is the system of rules governing coexistence in a society. There are many moral and cultural systems.
• Ethics: It is the part of philosophy that reflects on these issues and tries to rationally develop a universal morality, valid for all cultures.

The Search for Optimal Solutions

The... Continue reading "Ethical Problem-Solving: Universal Moral Principles" »