Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Method and the Crisis of Knowledge

René Descartes' fundamental objective was to establish order in a world where everything was questioned. Cartesianism arose as an attempt to solve the crisis caused by the emergence of new science and the decline of scholasticism. Thinkers needed a new criterion for truth. While Francis Bacon argued that this criterion must be experience, Descartes posited that reason should establish this new approach through a method.

Descartes' Method: Four Key Rules

Descartes outlined a rational method as a set of rules, certain and easy to observe, that would prevent anyone from accepting falsehoods as truths. These rules can be summarized as follows:

1. Evidence: Accept only ideas known with absolute certainty

International Human Rights Instruments

• Convention on the Political Rights of Women
• Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
• Declaration on the Rights of the Child
• Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
• Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons
• Declaration on the Human Environment
• Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons
• Convention Against Torture

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and National Constitutions

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a landmark document upon which democratic countries must base their constitutions. For example, principles found in the UDHR are reflected in national laws, such as in the Spanish Constitution:

• Article 1: Spain becomes a social and democratic state of law.
• Article

Aristotle on Happiness and Contemplative Life

Aristotle identifies happiness with purely intellectual activity or contemplative life. While not excluding other virtues, Aristotle privileges intellectual virtues over moral virtues. He argues that intellectual pursuits require fewer external goods, making them less susceptible to the vagaries of fortune and the risks of scarcity. Indeed, Aristotle states, "The wise is sufficient unto itself and does not need anything or anyone to be happy."

The Polis and the Good Life

For Aristotle, the polis (city-state) serves a higher purpose than the family or the village. It is not merely concerned with biological needs or the satisfaction of immediate vital necessities, but with living well. This "living well"... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Happiness, Virtue, and the Polis" »

Character Analysis of a Post-War Drama

Mario

Mario initially appears as the defeated and innocent victim of the war. However, it is important not to oversimplify his character. Mario exemplifies the contemplative individual whose defeatist and skeptical nature leads him to abstain from participating in the struggle. He chooses to remain marginalized, voluntarily bribed by ethical imperatives (113, analysis of the functioning of society, and reply to Mario). Vicente likens his idealism to that of Don Quixote, but unlike the literary figure, Mario did act. Nevertheless, he recognizes his mistake in the end, acknowledging his inaction and selfishness. He represents a breath of hope in his quest for transcendence, a trait inherited from his father.... Continue reading "Characters in a Post-War Drama: Analysis & Symbolism" »

Understanding the Welfare State

The welfare state is a concept where the state or society assumes responsibility for the social and economic well-being of its members. This responsibility is generally understood as comprehensive and universal, as "welfare" is a broad concept applicable to everyone.

Core Principles and Responsibilities

For some, such welfare is considered a fundamental right, whether a human, natural, or specific social right. For others, no such inherent right exists; instead, they view it as a duty of the state, society, or its members—often termed social responsibility.

This duty may or may not be seen as stemming from a moral or legal concept of joint liability, potentially arising from a hypothetical social contract. Such... Continue reading "The Welfare State: Principles, Rights, and Social Impact" »

Criticism of the concept of reason focuses on two aspects:

1. Nietzsche adopts an empiricist standpoint theory of knowledge. Reversing the traditional approach, he provides the superior sensory experience over reason: the senses show us the real world (thanks to them, experimental science is possible), while reason misrepresents the testimony of the senses, creating an apparent world and misleading us.
2. The critique of reason is an analysis of language, as this is what falsifies reality and not reason. Man has to fall necessarily into error because he is a victim of language.

Language Problems

1. It confuses us to identify words with things. Language makes us believe that the fact that there exists a word necessarily implies a reference. For example,

Understanding Philosophy: Core Concepts and Disciplines

Philosophy (from Latin philosophia, and ancient Greek φιλοσοφία, meaning 'love of wisdom') is the study of a variety of fundamental issues and questions concerning:

• Existence
• Knowledge
• Truth
• Morality
• Beauty
• Mind
• Language

In addressing these issues, philosophy distinguishes itself from mysticism, mythology, and certain forms of religion due to its emphasis on rational arguments. It also differs from experimental science because it generally conducts its investigations in a non-empirical manner, relying instead on methods such as speculation, conceptual analysis, thought experiments, or other a priori approaches, without excluding reflection on empirical or psychological experiences.

Historical

Kant's Life and Influences

The Enlightenment and Prussian Context

Immanuel Kant's life unfolded in Prussia during the Enlightenment, a period profoundly influenced by French thought. While the Enlightenment's arrival in Germany was somewhat delayed, it gained momentum under the reign of Frederick II. Kant, a Protestant, championed the Enlightenment ideal of human reason's maturity, advocating for liberation from religious dogma.

Despotism dominated the political landscape, with monarchs implementing social reforms inspired by Enlightenment principles, albeit without popular participation. The Encyclopedia, a powerful expression of Enlightenment ideals, championed tolerance, cosmopolitanism, and respect for human dignity. The concept of progress,... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Moral Philosophy: A Deep Dive" »

Epistemology: Understanding Knowledge

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies problems related to knowledge.

Key Concepts in Epistemology:

• Knowledge: True knowledge or knowledge in the strict sense; understanding phenomena.
• Innate Ideas: Ideas believed to be present since birth.
• Empiricism: Argues that perception is the main source of our ideas.
• Rationalism: Maintains that reason or understanding also provides some ideas without recourse to sensory experience.
• Criterion of Truth: The essential feature and main value of knowledge. We appreciate and value knowledge primarily for its truth.
• Correspondence Criterion: The oldest criterion, holding that a proposition is true if it corresponds with the facts.
• Consistency Criterion: A proposition

Anthropology and Knowledge

Anthropology

Man is a substance composed of body and soul. The body is mortal, the soul is immortal. In this sense, Aquinas is closer to Plato, who speaks of the immortality of the soul and not the body. Aristotle's hylemorphic theory (where body is the subject, and soul is the form) is also influential, although there are Aristotelian elements.

The doctrine of creation points to the relation between God and the rest of us; these beings are contingent. They exist, but they could not exist. This leads St. Thomas to affirm the distinction between essence and existence. The essence is what a thing is, and existence is that it is. The only being in which essence and existence are identical is God.

The assertion that all created... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature and Divine Existence" »