Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Saint Augustine: Faith, Reason, and the Search for Truth

Born on November 13, 354, in Tagaste and died in 430, Saint Augustine believed that the full truth resides in Christianity. However, he acknowledged that before the rise of Christianity, philosophers also possessed some truths inspired by God. Saint Augustine, therefore, utilized some Greek concepts. In his thought, there is a significant influence of Platonism and Neoplatonism.

The Search for Truth

For Saint Augustine, there is no conflict between faith and reason; he considered them complementary. He criticized skepticism by asserting the necessary certainty of one's existence, stating that even if all our opinions were always wrong, we still exist. This implies that we also know because... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Philosophy of Faith and Reason" »

Immanuel Kant: Synthesis and Influence

Kant is undoubtedly the greatest eighteenth-century German philosopher and one of the most enthusiastic proponents of the Enlightenment. From a strictly philosophical point of view, this included the daunting task of criticism that Kant undertook, subjecting theoretical reason and practical reason to rigorous scrutiny. As a result, he brought a dazzling synthesis of rationalism and empiricism concerning theoretical reason, and a new ethical theory, formalism, which broke with all previous approaches. As if this were not enough, Kant connects both forms of reason in the Critique of Judgment, which studies the nature and purpose of aesthetic judgments. Such contributions have exerted a considerable influence... Continue reading "Kant and Marx: Philosophical Legacies" »

Nietzsche's Theory of Moral Origins

Friedrich Nietzsche's theory posits that moral values originate from resentment, a reaction by the weak against the strong. Unable to create their own values, the weak deny the values of the noble, those capable of genuine creation. This resentment, rather than an inability to create, fuels the reactive process that gives rise to what Nietzsche terms "slave morality". It's not a lack of capacity, but a reactive force.

The Relevance of Nietzsche's Ideas Today

Nietzsche's text offers a valuable interpretation of our understanding of moral values. It prompts reflection on two key points:

• To what extent does theorizing about morality console us for our inability to live creatively in a world of changing values?

Humanity's Three Great Narcissistic Injuries

Sigmund Freud argues that society has navigated a process that has inflicted injuries upon its collective narcissism. The concept of narcissism, taking from the myth of Narcissus (a Greek character who fell in love with himself and ultimately died because of his own vanity), refers to self-love. This self-love is considered a necessary part of being human; it's like saying, "First, I must love myself, and then I can turn my love to others."

The individual needs a degree of narcissism, but this can lead to an extremely inflated ego, making any statement that questions its omnipotence intolerable. In this process, throughout human history, there have been three major injuries that painfully struck down... Continue reading "Humanity's Narcissistic Injuries: Copernicus, Darwin, Freud" »

Christianity's Influence

With Christianity came new ways of thinking.

Manichaeism

Manichaeism is a religious doctrine of salvation based on the philosophical idea that the world is divided into good and evil, light and dark, spirit and matter.

Augustine on Reason and Faith

Both reason and faith can lead to God; there is no contradiction between them. "Believe to understand, understand to believe."

Creation: Augustine vs. Greeks

St. Augustine held that God created the world out of nothing, while the Greeks believed the world has existed forever.

Augustine's View on Evil

Evil is the absence of God, something that is not, resulting from human disobedience to the will of God.

Rebirth

Rebirth was a cultural movement that originated in Italy in the late fourteenth... Continue reading "Christianity's Impact in the Middle Ages & Key Philosophies" »

Historical Context

René Descartes' life unfolded primarily in the first part of the 17th century. The 16th century witnessed the fragmentation of religious unity in Europe due to the Protestant Reformation, challenging the long-held ideal of a united Europe under the Christian faith.

Socio-politically, France, Holland, and England emerged as economic centers. Absolute monarchy spread across Europe. The Spanish bourgeoisie faced economic ruin, while nobility and clergy remained the primary landowners. England experienced two revolutions and a civil war. Europe engaged in colonial ventures driven by mercantilist principles. The growth of trade empowered the bourgeoisie, leading to the breakdown of the Ancien Régime. This era marked the height... Continue reading "Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Comparison to Aristotle" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Western Thought

The text that we have to discuss is an excerpt from Twilight of the Idols, a work in which Nietzsche declares war on the entire tradition of Western thought: philosophers, priests, moralists, and scientists—essentially, all who have defended the morality of slaves and promoted a lifestyle that denies metaphysical life and instincts. In short, he critiques those who have denied the Dionysian.

Philosophy of Reason

As stated in the philosophy of reason, this is a character epistemic text that summarizes Nietzsche's critique of metaphysics and vital morality. Encased in the nineteenth century, Nietzsche's thought is a response to the crisis of Enlightenment reason. The philosophy of the second half of the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Western Thought and Morality" »

Analysis

1. The Apollonian and Dionysian

Nietzsche aims to create a philosophy capable of understanding the reality of human life. Our author sees life as a process in constant realization. This aims to understand the human species and therefore needs to analyze the human reality in all its manifestations. He is critical of earlier philosophers because they forget that man is a being in permanent construction. Nietzsche maintains the idea that life is cruel and a blind irrationality. The Greek god Dionysus represents life. Art gives us the strength to accept life as it is. Tragic art represents the full affirmation of life. The secret of the Greek world is in the Dionysian spirit.

To explain the reality of life, Nietzsche draws on the Greek gods... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Analysis: Apollonian & Dionysian" »

Principle of Non-Retroactivity of Law

The principle of non-retroactivity of law means that a law can only apply to the future and will never have a retroactive effect. However, there are laws that apply retroactively. For example, laws that restrict themselves to declaring the meaning of other laws shall be incorporated into them but will not, in any way, affect the effects of judgments enforceable in the intermediate time.

Principle of Res Judicata

Res judicata is the effect produced by certain court decisions that are immovable, i.e., they cannot be discussed again. The principle of res judicata requires compliance with what was fixed in the sentence and also prevents double jeopardy by prohibiting the repetition of what has already been decided.... Continue reading "Key Legal Principles: Non-Retroactivity, Res Judicata, Prescription, Common Good" »

The Essence of Ideas

In each general term, "cat" in this case, there is an idea, an essence that defines it as one thing and distinguishes it from others. For Plato, the idea of a cat has content; it is not just a word. We associate that word with an idea, and an idea is a term that exists in our mind, a way to identify cats. For Plato, the cat as an idea is reality; the idea is real because it does not change. If something is real, it must remain constant. For Plato, ideas are universal; we all understand the same meaning for our ideas. All individuals share a common idea. Ideas are paramount because they do not change. He advocates for the immutability of ideas because they are the essences of what we can perceive and learn through the senses.... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ideas, Morality, Society, and Education" »