Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' View of Mind and Body

Descartes' anthropology presents man as a composite of two distinct substances: res cogitans (the thinking substance or soul) and res extensa (the extended substance or body). These substances are considered independent and autonomous.

The Mind-Body Problem

Two important questions arise from this dualism: how do these substances relate, and how do they communicate? Their relationship is undeniable: when the soul gives orders, the body obeys. Descartes' duality of man is a direct result of his metaphysical dualism.

Since the understanding has a clear and distinct idea of thinking substance and a clear and distinct idea of extended substance, it is evident that these are two different, independent substances. This... Continue reading "Descartes: Mind, Body, and Reality" »

Plato's Philosophy of Knowledge

Plato believed that the philosophy of knowledge is distinct from mere technical skill. Philosophical knowledge, which concerns humanity and the fundamental principles governing the world, is not systematically acquired by everyone. Indeed, it is a great misfortune to be unaware of one's own ignorance.

Understanding Non-Wisdom

Non-wisdom, or ignorance, is characterized by being aware of what is false, or believing one knows when one does not.

Knowledge, Perception, and Truth

Plato argued that true knowledge is not derived from perception. Truth, in its purest form, transcends mere appearances. Perceptions of objects, their forms, and their shapes are variable and constantly changing. Since what is detected by the senses... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge and Reality" »

Nietzsche's Stages

Context: Three Phases

Youth/Romantic Period

During his youth, Nietzsche studied Greek culture and was influenced by Wagner's music and Schopenhauer's pessimism. This period deals with pre-Socratics like Heraclitus, emphasizing tragic thinkers, intellectual solitude, and a lucid approach. He critically examined Socrates, viewing moral reasoning as resentment and hatred towards life.

Transitional Period

In this non-positivist phase, Nietzsche draws upon experimental sciences to challenge the romantic values he previously held. This transforms him into a free spirit, opposing his former mentors.

Maturity Period

Nietzsche expounds on key themes like eternal recurrence, the death of God, and the superman. He strongly criticizes the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critique of Western Culture" »

Descartes' Ethics: Actions and Passions

Descartes distinguishes between actions and passions. Actions are the decisions and behaviors that depend on the will. Passions, however, are involuntary, depending on the body and the vital spirits (as described by Galen in medicine). They encompass feelings, emotions, and perceptions that are intrinsically linked to the body.

The Nature of Passions

Being dependent on the body, passions can exaggerate good and evil, making some things appear more desirable or difficult to obtain than they truly are. The soul's passions can exert pressure in opposing directions, sometimes leading towards good, and sometimes pulling one away from it.

Reason's Role in Governing Passions

Reason must govern human life and conduct,... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Reason, Passions, and Provisional Morality" »

Theory of Knowledge

The Sophists claimed that words were meaningless. However, Socrates and Plato argued against this. In Plato's dialogues, the spoken word was considered a convention, suggesting that things are named arbitrarily. This raised the question of how language originated.

Another theory explored the essence of things, proposing that names should reflect the inherent nature of objects. However, this theory faced challenges due to the existence of different languages.

The third theory, selection intelligible, posits that there are degrees of knowledge. Plato illustrated this with the "allegory of the segmented line," dividing knowledge into two realms: Doxa and Episteme.

Doxa encompasses assumptions and expert opinions about physical... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Ideas, Soul, and Reminiscence" »

Key Concepts in Justice

• Synthesis: Summary
• Human Rights: Rights inherent to all human beings
• Rule of Law: All people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law
• Procedural Guarantees: Protections entitling a person to a fair trial and punishment
• Abolition: Elimination
• Impartiality: Not sacrificing justice for personal interests
• Means of Coercion: Means used to ensure justice is not sacrificed for personal interests
• Federation of Free States: A type of political organization in which each state cedes part of its sovereignty to a federal government
• Cosmopolitan Right: A set of rules allowing for socially and ecologically responsible economic development by the state

Political and Ethical Theories

• Liberalism

  This theory promotes civil liberties

St. Augustine's Epistemology and the Love of the Unknown

In this text concerning St. Augustine, we encounter an epistemological problem that responds to the question: Is it possible to love the unknown?

The Question of Loving the Unknown

St. Augustine argues that one loves what is unknown but believed, and that God is known, contemplated, and perceived by the mind.

Key Augustinian Concepts

St. Augustine defines several key terms:

• To Know: The internalization process by which one finds the eternal ideas, from which judgments about things are made.
• To Love (Caritas): To love as charity, that is, as love for God and men in terms of God. This translates into a disposition of the will by which we become virtuous and not sinners.
• God: The foundation of all

Affirming Life

Nietzsche seeks to affirm life, accepting it as it is: a spontaneous instinct that manifests as a struggle of forces where some are created and others are destroyed, where nothing is permanent. Life is a creative force, asserting the will to power, which is the desire to live (vital force). In his critique of philosophy, Nietzsche states that decadence starts with Socrates and is reflected in the traditional concepts of Western culture, which is a reflection of Platonic Dualism.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a consequence of the decadence of Western culture, which has fundamentally denied life and affirmed nothing. There are two types of nihilism:

• Passive Nihilism: This is the discovery that all cultural values are false and everything Western

Introduction to British Empiricism

Empiricism is a significant philosophical tradition in English thought. While it critiques rationalism, both share common ground as heirs of Cartesian philosophy, focusing on 'ideas' as fundamental to understanding.

Metaphysics Critiqued

Hume critiques metaphysical ideas, particularly the concept of substance in its extensive, thoughtful, and infinite aspects.

Critique of the Idea of God

Hume argues against causal inferences for God's existence, asserting that such arguments illegitimately move from impressions to non-impressions. He posits that valid ideas must originate from impressions; otherwise, they should be rejected.

Impact of Causality Criticism

The empiricist criterion, limiting certain ideas to impressions,... Continue reading "British Empiricism: Hume's Critique of Metaphysics, Self, and God" »

Historical Context of Immanuel Kant's Philosophy

Immanuel Kant, who famously never left Königsberg, developed his philosophy in response to the major intellectual and political movements of his time:

• Enlightenment Thought: The central intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism.
• Publication of the Encyclopédie (1751), a monumental work that synthesized the knowledge of the era.
• Monarchical support for the promotion of arts and sciences.
• Scientific and technical progress and its consequences:
  • The Industrial Revolution
  • The emergence of the proletariat (working class)
• Major political upheavals: The American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789).

The Core Tenets of Enlightenment Thinking

Kant believed in a new way of thinking... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Historical and Intellectual Background" »