Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophy: The Love of Wisdom

The reflection method that reflects the articulation of knowledge and the limits of existence and modes of being is called philosophy. The term, of Greek origin, is composed of two words: philos (love) and sophia (thought, wisdom, knowledge). Therefore, philosophy is the love of knowledge.

The philosopher, in turn, is an individual seeking knowledge for knowledge itself, without a pragmatic view. They are moved by curiosity and inquire about the ultimate foundations of reality. Beyond the development of philosophy as a discipline, the act of philosophizing is intrinsic to the human condition. It is not just concrete knowledge, but a natural attitude of humans in relation to the universe and their own being.

Like... Continue reading "Philosophy and Intelligence: Understanding Human Existence" »

Machiavelli: Life and Political Philosophy

Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence in 1469 into a noble family and received a good education. He actively participated in political life until the age of 44, dedicating his time to political theory. His most seminal work is The Prince. Machiavelli was primarily interested in presenting the mechanics of government, divorced from moral questions, and in formulating the means by which political power can be established and maintained. He argued that if a state's primary goal is to ensure its safety and welfare, the ruler is justified in using immoral means to establish and preserve power. Machiavelli's thinking is dominated by political realism: he sought to analyze the pure political act, devoid... Continue reading "Machiavelli: Politics, Power, and The Prince" »

Myth vs. Logos: The Dawn of Reason

Myth: A fantastical story, rich in symbols and metaphors, passed down through generations. Myths explain the world's origin and address questions about the afterlife, featuring gods, heroes, and characters who act arbitrarily within a natural setting. They reveal esoteric truths that require interpretation.

Logos: Representing word, argument, and reason, logos signifies language grounded in reason and explanation. This marked the beginning of rational thought, with philosophy as its heir.

Early Theories of Existence

Fixism: This theory posits that species arose from a single act of creation at a specific time and remain unchanged. Aristotle adhered to this view.

Creationism: Creationists argue for divine intervention... Continue reading "Human Evolution and the Rise of Philosophical Thought" »

Plato's Ideal State and the Philosopher Ruler

Motivation: Discontent in Athens

Plato believed that the philosopher is the only one capable of governing an ideal state justly. His philosophy emerged in reaction to the philosophical theories and discontent with the political situation of his time. In 5th century BC Athens, neither the democracy nor the rule of the Thirty Tyrants had been able to govern justly. Plato rejected democracy, which promoted the equality of citizens without regard for knowledge or virtue. He also criticized it because the democracy led by Pericles devolved into the power of a few poorly educated sophists, and the system committed injustices, such as condemning Socrates to death.

The Role of Knowledge and Ideas

Plato argued... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice, Society, and Philosopher Rulers" »

Rousseau: Social Contract, Book I, Chapter III

1. Rousseau on Might and Right

   According to Rousseau, the use of force always seeks the appearance of right to justify itself. However, if force itself creates right, then the duty to obey such force exists only as long as the force prevails. If a stronger force replaces the first, the right also shifts. Therefore, one can disobey with impunity and legitimacy when no longer compelled by force.

2. Rousseau's View on Hobbes's Theory of Power

   Rousseau would likely disagree with Hobbes's theory. Hobbes holds a pessimistic view of human nature, contrary to Rousseau. This is shown in Hobbes's statement: "if you have not established a power or not big enough for our security, each will rely only, and may lawfully,

Kant's Transcendental Idealism

The philosophical currents of Kant's transcendental idealism. Idealism, while sounding similar to the Platonic concept of separate ideas, was not directly associated with it by Kant. Instead, Kant analyzed everything through reason, critically examining the powers of human knowledge.

Idealism, in Kant's view, posits that the subject of knowledge (the cognoscente) imposes structures or forms of knowledge (transcendental) that make experience possible. These forms transform things into subjects of knowledge. For Kant, these structures are universal and empty of content, shared by all human beings. These empty structures are filled at the moment of knowledge. The forms transform things into objects of knowledge.

Before... Continue reading "Kant's Transcendental Idealism: A Philosophical Analysis" »

The first step is understanding substance as composed of a single body (matter) and soul (form). The soul cannot know the intelligible in itself, but knows things intellectually through sensation. There are two types of knowledge: sensible and intellectual. Sensible knowledge is the collection of aspects of knowledge in things through the senses, being converted into sensible form. Intellectual knowledge is the knowledge as the thing itself is present in the soul as an intelligible form. This is possible through understanding patient and agent. The agent produces the intellectual form through the sensitive. This is called abstraction: the act of taking the sensible form and converting it into an intelligible form. This goes to understanding... Continue reading "Rational Theology: Faith, Reason, and Knowledge" »

The Nature of Reality

1) Common Sense Realism: There is a real, external world perceived through our senses and analyzed by science.

2) Skepticism: Our senses may not provide a reliable picture of the outside world, sometimes deceiving us with illusions.

3) Idealism: When we analyze the world, we only have our ideas about it. There is only the universe of our minds and perceptions.

4) Phenomenalism: It is not possible to provide a general picture of the world. The real world is the set of sensory phenomena and perceptions.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of the fundamental features of reality and being.

Metaphysical Traits

1) Knowledge of Principles: Metaphysics analyzes the first principles of reality, from which all other principles are derived,... Continue reading "Understanding Reality: Metaphysics, God, and the World" »

The Principle of Solidarity

Solidarity is the search for the good of all and each, encompassing both legal and economic rules, as well as the relationships between people.

Solidarity: Moral Virtue vs. Principle

As an ordering principle of social institutions, solidarity serves the common good and helps overcome "structures of sin" arising from selfishness, lust for power, and exclusive profit.

Solidarity is not a vague feeling of compassion. It is the firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good, that of all and each, because we are all responsible for each other.

Defining the Common Good

The common good is the sum total of social conditions which allow people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfillment... Continue reading "Foundational Social Principles Explained" »

Theories of Truth

The Correspondence Theory

Truth is achieved when a statement matches reality. For centuries, this has been considered the most reliable way to ascertain truth. However, when reality is not material, truth becomes more subjective. Truth can never be subjective.

The Coherence Theory

Truth lies in consistency and the absence of contradictions within a set of statements. Logic is essential to determine consistency. Any change in information must maintain coherence. Hegel believed that truth encompasses everything. One ideal of science is to integrate all existing scientific theories.

The Pragmatic Theory

Truth is what produces useful results. This aligns with the idea that the end justifies the means, making it an a posteriori theory... Continue reading "Theories of Truth and the Possibility of Knowledge" »