Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

John Locke (1632–1704): Father of Liberalism

John Locke is considered the father of political liberalism. His most important work is Two Treatises of Government.

The Social Contract and Consent of the Governed

The main idea of Locke's philosophy is that the power of rulers is based on the consent of the governed.

The State of Nature (Locke)

For Locke, civil government arises through a social contract. His State of Nature is characterized by:

• Complete Equality: No one is above anyone else.
• Perfect Freedom: Individuals can do whatever they want with themselves and their properties.
• Natural Law Limit: This freedom has a limit—the obligation not to harm others.

Men leave the State of Nature because not all individuals adhere to natural law; some violate... Continue reading "Locke vs. Hobbes: Contrasting Social Contract Theories" »

Truth as Correspondence

The theory of truth as correspondence rests on two assumptions: first, that there is a reality independent of thought, and second, that this reality can be known. This aligns with empiricist and realistic theories of knowledge.

Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas held this view, stating that truth is the correspondence between the intellect and the thing. Russell later refined this theory, proposing an isomorphism between reality and thought. Tarski emphasized the mediating role of language in the process of knowledge.

Truth as Coherence

Theories of truth as coherence are favored by rationalistic or idealistic thinkers like Spinoza, Leibniz, and Hegel. These theories operate at a linguistic level, focusing on the relationships... Continue reading "Understanding Different Perspectives on Truth" »

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

Pre-conventional Morality

At this level, there is no understanding of social rules. Moral questions are considered only from a personal perspective.

Conventional Morality

Judgments are made based on the rules and expectations of the individual's social group. Moral issues are addressed to maintain membership within the group.

Post-conventional Morality

Individuals understand societal rules but are not limited by them. Thought is governed by principles and values accepted because they are based on general principles. Moral reasoning involves:

• Defining what is good.
• Using reasons to defend the perception of good.

Kohlberg's Moral Education

The goal is to maximize the capacity for moral judgment development through:... Continue reading "Understanding Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development" »

From Myth to Reason: Foundations of Western Philosophy

Mythical Thinking and Its Categories

Mythical thinking attempts to provide answers based on superstition, legend, magic, belief, and chance. We can categorize different types of mythology:

• Cosmogonic: Relates the origin of the universe and the world.
• Anthropogenic: Details the creation of humankind.
• Historical: Relates the origin of a culture or civilization.
• Eschatological: Tells what lies beyond death.

Rational Thought

Rational thought is based on logic. It replaced arbitrary mythological necessity with rational necessity based on laws. This is founded on the conviction that events are governed by natural laws, allowing everything to operate within a rational order.

The Socratic Era and Classical

Kant's Copernican Revolution in Philosophy

The **Copernican Revolution** is Kant's philosophical proposal to understand how **synthetic a priori knowledge** is possible, fundamentally changing the role of the subject in relation to the *a priori* conditions of knowledge.

Kant explains his philosophy using an analogy with the astronomical revolution initiated by Copernicus. Copernicus realized that celestial movement could not be understood under the theory that the Earth was the center of the universe, with the Sun and other celestial objects revolving around it. He finally understood that the Sun is at the center and the Earth revolves around it.

The central problem in philosophy, according to Kant, is explaining synthetic a priori knowledge.... Continue reading "Kant's Core Philosophical Concepts: Revolution, Illusion, and Imperatives" »

Thomas Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and God

Philosophical Approach

Thomas Aquinas, a great scholar and teacher, dedicated his life to teaching and writing. A primary question throughout his work is the relationship between faith and reason. Aquinas sought a balance and reconciliation between the two, based on these principles:

• Clear distinction between reason and faith: Reason is a natural human faculty; faith is a supernatural gift from divine grace.
• Reason cannot contradict revealed truth: If reasoning conflicts with revealed truth, the reasoning is false by definition.
• Three kinds of truths: Truths of natural reason, preambles of faith, and revealed truths.

Aquinas stressed the importance of natural law and reserved a significant place for Aristotelianism.... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God" »

Relations Between Reason and Faith

Saint Thomas Aquinas argued for the unity of truth, asserting that both reason (derived from sensory data) and faith (based on divine revelation) offer independent paths to understanding. While truths of faith are accepted without question, truths of reason (philosophy) can be explored through human intellect. Some truths of faith can be demonstrated rationally, such as the preambles of faith. Reason, faith, and theology converge, with theology illuminating natural theological truths. Philosophy and reason are erroneous only when their conclusions contradict faith.

Demonstration of the Existence of God

While accepting God's existence as revealed by faith, Aquinas offered five proofs based on sensory experience:... Continue reading "Saint Thomas Aquinas: Philosophy, Theology, and Existence of God" »

John Locke's Key Concepts in Political Philosophy

Consent

Consent can be either express or tacit:

• Express Consent: Free and voluntary individual agreement to join a political community. It is expressed in an explicit and clear way to establish a new community.
• Tacit Consent: Implicitly granted by any individual by the mere fact of living in and enjoying the benefits of an already established community.

State of Nature

The State of Nature is the hypothetical situation in which humans exist before forming a civil society through the social contract. In this state, individuals are governed by natural moral law, which grants them certain rights (life, liberty, equality, independence, and property) and the power to enforce the law.

Legitimate Government

A... Continue reading "Understanding Locke's Political Philosophy: Key Concepts" »

Introduction to Metaphysical Themes

Heinz Heimsoeth reduced the key and recurring themes of metaphysics in the West to six, which coincide with the fundamental problems of philosophy in general:

1. God and the World
2. Infinity and the Finite
3. Soul and the External World
4. Being and the Individual
5. Life
6. Intellect and Will

Christian Wolff, conversely, considers the parts of philosophy and its thematic areas to be four: Ontology (Being), General Cosmology (World), Rational Psychology (Soul), and Natural Theology (God).

Although the issues raised by Wolff and Heimsoeth appear different, they are co-implicated. One can hardly treat the philosophical question of God without addressing associated concepts such as those of infinity and finitude, and vice versa.

The Question

Modern Social and Political Theories

Thomas Hobbes, in his work Leviathan, discusses the social contract, where power is relinquished for societal order. He describes the state of initial human nature as a hypothetical situation of homo homini lupus (man is a wolf to man), where human nature is inherently destructive, leading to conflict and self-destruction. The welfare state, or life in society, necessitates suppressing destructive instincts and passions for security, achieved through acceptance of the law. The sovereign, possessing absolute power, represents this law, ensuring survival.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's concept of the noble savage, an innocent primitive without original sin, proposes innate human goodness. Social... Continue reading "Modern Social and Political Theories: Hobbes, Rousseau, Aristotle" »