Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Karl Marx: A Materialist Perspective

The Essence of Man

Marx argues that the essence of man lies in work, emphasizing our material relationship with nature and others. While this perspective holds merit, it overlooks the sentimental aspect of human existence. Family bonds, for example, are not solely material but deeply emotional. However, I agree with Marx's assertion that humans must produce their livelihoods; acquiring goods or food necessitates work.

Alienation of the Worker

Marx's theory of alienation posits that workers are alienated from the product and process of their labor. Forced to sell their labor power for survival, they lose control over their work and themselves. This resonates with the current reality where unskilled workers... Continue reading "Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche: A Comparative Analysis" »

Thales of Miletus

Little remains of Thales's original writings, but his views are widely referenced. He theorized that water is the fundamental principle of all things. He also believed the Earth was motionless, floating on water.

Anaximander of Miletus

Anaximander followed a similar philosophical path, interpreting the relationship between humanity and the cosmos. He introduced the concept of Apeiron (the boundless or indefinite) as the fundamental principle of existence, containing the cause of birth and destruction throughout the world.

Anaximenes of Miletus

Also from Miletus, Anaximenes proposed air as the foundational element of all things. He theorized that the varying densities of air, through condensation and rarefaction, give rise to the... Continue reading "Foundational Ideas of Early Greek Philosophy" »

Parmenides' Concept of Being

Parmenides of Elea proposed a radical concept of "Being" with several fundamental characteristics:

• It is eternal. It is neither generated nor can it perish. It is not generated, because if it were, it would come from non-being, which is unthinkable, or from being, in which case it would already exist. It cannot be destroyed, because to do so would be to cease to be, which is equally unthinkable.
• It is one. If there were two, they would have to differentiate into something. That 'something' would either be being, in which case they would be identical to the one, or non-being, in which case it would imply that non-being is being.
• It is indivisible. For it to be split, it would consist of 'parts,' and these parts would

Kant's Distinctions: Phenomenon and Noumenon

Kant presented in detail the distinction between phenomenon and noumenon, and on the other hand, the distinction between knowing and thinking.

1. Only phenomena we know, what appears to us in sensible intuition:
   1. Our knowledge of phenomena is the result of a double synthesis: the first level of sensitivity between the data of experience (sensory impressions) and the a priori forms of sensibility: Space and Time; the second between the spatially and temporally organized data and understanding, the concepts or categories.
2. Our theoretical knowledge is limited to objects of experience, to what is shown to us, so that any application of the categories to that of which I have no experience does not produce knowledge.

The Hegelian Dialectic

Kant argues that there is only technological progress, not moral. Hegel takes up these ideas, stating that there is moral progress as a result of history. History is dialectical; it works reasonably well with the triad thesis-antithesis-synthesis. Any statement in itself implies a negation, so the whole thesis generates an antithesis. These confront each other. The confrontation can only be overcome by another phase: synthesis. The synthesis is a time where we integrate the best, most rational aspects of the thesis and the antithesis. The synthesis generates a new thesis, and therefore another antithesis. It forms a chain, but Hegel says that there will be a final synthesis. This process is history. Each new synthesis... Continue reading "Hegel's Dialectic and Marx's Class Struggle" »

Historical Framework of Thomas Aquinas's Philosophy

The philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas developed in the 13th century, a period representing the greatest flowering of medieval Europe. France served as the cultural and political center, enjoying a stable economy driven by flourishing trade, a stable currency, increasing circulation of precious metals, and the consolidation of papal power. The artisan guild system reached its zenith during this era. Denying the existence of God was dangerous, and the prevailing Augustinian philosophy assumed God's existence.

Sociocultural Context: The Rise of Universities

The 13th century is notable for the appearance and rise of universities, including prominent institutions like Bologna, Oxford, and Salamanca.... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas's Philosophy: Thirteenth-Century Foundations and Core Ideas" »

Locke's Empiricism: Common Sense and Ideas

John Locke, in a Cartesian manner, defends the need to reflect on one's own knowledge. Following Cartesian principles, he defines knowledge as the agreement or disagreement between ideas, and not as an agreement between ideas and things, as classical thought did. This shift from classical thought means modern philosophy focuses not on what the world is in itself, but on what happens within our consciousness – that is, all of our ideas.

Idea Source and Type

Descartes claimed that the mind has innate ideas generated by our own reason. Locke rejects this possibility, arguing that reason is not creative, but rather receives content, merely perceiving the agreement or disagreement between these contents.... Continue reading "Locke and Berkeley: Empiricism, Ideas, and the Nature of Reality" »

Circumstances that Foster Global Citizenship

Several factors contribute to the rise of global citizenship. These include:

• Shortening distances between people across the globe.
• Disappearing borders.
• Development of advanced communication technologies.

These changes raise hope for humanity to work together to build a better world and achieve shared happiness.

Key Changes in the 20th Century

• Disappearance of physical borders.
• Automatic, direct, and immediate communication with anyone worldwide.
• Access to any information.
• Ability to engage in dialogue and make friends without leaving one's chair.
• Access to images and real-time processing of events on television.

Advantages of New Technologies

• Improvement in personal development.
• Enhanced staff training and quality

Descartes: A Transition to Modern Philosophy

Descartes lived during the Renaissance, a period of transition between medieval and modern philosophy. Key features of this era include:

• Decomposition of feudalism: The emergence of a new class-based society.
• Loss of medieval religious meaning: A shift from theocentrism to anthropocentrism, with the rise of national monarchies.
• Secular spirit: Civil power and politicians distanced themselves from the Church.
• Discoveries: New geographical and scientific discoveries expanded the known world.
• Reformation: The breakdown of religious unity.
• The new science: A focus on mathematizing the observable world.
• Everything: The problem of actually going into the background.

Rationalism in the 17th and 18th Centuries

Rationalism... Continue reading "Descartes: Rationalism and the Cartesian Method" »

Part Three: Organization for Creation and Sustainability

Item 7: Develop the Will to Act & Form a Group Motor

Go Meet People & Understand the Context

The purpose of community work is the establishment and/or accompaniment of groups in carrying out social development projects.

During the immersion process and gaining knowledge of the social space in which they work, the professional in social intervention often detects a collective problem. Regarding this problem, there might be a passive attitude of waiting or demanding action from others. Imagining that a community worker's action develops solely from an explicit request by people can be, in many cases, an error and naive.
It's an error because someone who does not perceive themselves... Continue reading "Fostering Collective Action: Proactive Community Work" »