Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

David Hume (an 18th-century Scottish philosopher) studied law at Trinity College. He later moved to Paris and met Rousseau.

Hume's text discusses human perceptions. He makes several key points:

1. There are two types of perceptions: impressions and ideas. Impressions are immediate and leave a strong mark.
2. The difference between impressions and ideas lies in their intensity. Impressions are stronger than ideas (ideas are reflections of impressions). This is because impressions are immediate and instant, while ideas are formed later.
3. The difference between an impression and an idea is the same as the difference between feeling and thinking.
4. Another distinction can be made based on complexity: simple and complex perceptions. Simple perceptions are unique,

The Dawn of Athenian Democracy: Historical Context

1. The Humanist Turn

• Historical and Political Factors: Pericles implemented significant political reforms, paving the way for democracy and abolishing the privileges of the old aristocracy and oligarchs. This democratic transformation experienced both its zenith and its decline. Athens faced both internal and external adversaries.
  • External Enemies: Sparta and the Spartan aristocracy, leading to the Peloponnesian War and the eventual defeat of Athens.
  • Internal Enemies: The aristocrats, initially accepting of reforms, but quickly became critical of the new political system, seeking to regain their former power.
• Social and Economic Factors: Greek society transitioned into an urban one, reliant on slave

Rousseau's Stages of Human Evolution

Rousseau proposed two stages in human evolution:

• State of nature: Individuals live happily and freely, isolated within families.
• State of civilization (social): Humans become evil, selfish, vain, and superficial.

Hobbes' View on Human Nature

Hobbes believed that humans are sociable by nature, a concept opposite to Rousseau's. Human nature is driven by the desire for power, fame, and selfishness.

Hobbes advocated for the necessity of state and society to ensure individual safety.

Kant's Perspective

Kant represents the pinnacle of modern thought. Influenced by Rousseau, he affirmed the dignity and rights of human beings.

Kant believed in two opposing dimensions: natural and rational, with the latter dominating the... Continue reading "Human Nature: Rousseau, Hobbes, Kant, Freud & Marx" »

Political Theory of the Modern State

Medieval political thought was modernized and adapted to the new scenario. The political theory of the modern state does not ignore the moral and theological components characteristic of the Middle Ages.

Machiavelli's work on ethical considerations about such things as legitimate power and good governance gives way to the stark description of the mechanisms of politics. We found two different perspectives: one ethical, centered on the origin, nature, and limits of political power; the other, more empirical, descriptive, and innovative, focused on what is portrayed and how it works.

Legitimate and Sovereign Power

The theory of power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is very rich. This results in the... Continue reading "Modern State Political Theory: Power and Legitimacy" »

Comparison of Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset

If we compare Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset, the context is crucial, as they belong to the same period:

• Ortega would agree with Nietzsche that life is the central concept upon which all philosophical reflection is based. The fundamental reality is life; the reality of every individual is their life.
• However, Ortega believed that explaining life as a mere "will to power" is a reductionism that excludes much of what constitutes human life, such as history, projects, desires, and so on.

Comparison of Descartes and Ortega y Gasset

If we compare Descartes and Ortega y Gasset, we can highlight the following:

• Ortega criticizes Descartes for attempting to reduce reason to mathematics, which prevents it from providing

Absolute

Absolute, as traditionally understood in philosophy, is that which exists by itself and does not need or depend on anything else. When referring to truth, it means complete and total truth.

Abstract and Abstraction

Abstract, etymologically, means to extract or to get something from something else. More rigorously, abstraction means the process by which the understanding obtains (extracts) the universal concept from the sensory image, which is particular and specific. The concept of 'home' is universal because it applies to all objects called "home," which share common characteristics. The image of a "home" is unique because it refers only to a specific house.

For Ortega, the "I" is a concrete reality, mobile and plural. All knowledge that... Continue reading "Key Philosophical Concepts: Absolute to Culture" »

Definitions

Universe

All that exists, apart from which there is nothing.

Scientific Paradigm

A model of the scientific worldview that predominates in each historical stage.

Nature

The set of realities that form the entire universe, excluding anything artificially produced by humans.

Principle

The start, beginning, or cause from which something originates.

Hypothesis

A supposition or tentative scientific explanation proposed to interpret or provide solutions to certain facts.

Postulate

An unprovable proposition whose truth is accepted provisionally as a starting point for studying a problem when an absolutely true starting point cannot be found.

Define

Determining what something is by extracting the common characteristics of all individuals within the same... Continue reading "Exploring Key Concepts: Universe, Nature, and Reality" »

The central theme of this text is the path of knowledge that Plato calls "dialectic," as described in the allegory of the cave. This allegory presents humans chained inside a cave, confused in a world of appearances and shadows, with their ignorance interpreted as true reality. However, humans are called out of the cave into the light to know the real world, free from the shackles of prejudice and ignorance. To achieve this, the human soul possesses the power of intelligence, which allows us to rise on the path of knowledge. This path is difficult because, although the soul aspires to break free of customs, beliefs, and prejudices, at the end of this road, one finds true reality, the idea of goodness, just as the sun illuminates all intellectual... Continue reading "Plato's Cave Allegory: Understanding the Ascent to True Knowledge" »

Aristotle's Logic

3. Logic. Aristotle is credited with creating logic as a tool for scientific inquiry. He demonstrated that in science, problems are resolved by navigating between the singular and the multiple, the universal and the particular.

The syllogism expresses a relationship that illustrates how the universal applies to the particular. For example: "Every man is mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

• Induction (Inverse Process): If we know all particular cases and arrive at a general conclusion, the induction is complete. Example: Men, horses, and mules live long, and they are animals without gallbladders; therefore, animals without gallbladders are long-lived.

We possess scientific knowledge if we know: that something... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics and Logic: Understanding Being" »