Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Quest for Arche: Early Greek Philosophers

What kind of reality is the unitary order that justifies the diversity of things in the world? The answers given to this question may seem naive, but what is important is not the answers, but the very wording of that question.

The Ionian School

A common characteristic unites these thinkers: All things share one and the same first principle, or arche. Their basic concern is to find the foundation that explains the common constitution of everything; that which informs us about *physis*, i.e., the physical world.

• Thales: He sees the arche in water, observing the different forms it takes and how water is the essential element of life.
• Anaximander: The first to use the word arche. He posits that the basic

Understanding Key Philosophical Concepts

Intuition: Intuition is direct and immediate knowledge, without reasoning, generally considered obvious.

Skepticism: Skepticism is questioning claims that are often taken for granted.

Phenomenology: Phenomenology studies events as they appear in consciousness, focusing on the relationship between facts.

Eidetic: Eidetic relates to essence and ideas, as opposed to factual or sensible matters.

Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics is the art of interpreting texts to determine the precise meaning of words and expressed thoughts.

Subjective: Subjectivity is based on the individual's viewpoint, influenced by interests and wishes, contrasting with objectivity.

Pantonomia: Also called universalism, pantonomia is the study of... Continue reading "Understanding Key Philosophical Concepts and Their Meanings" »

1. Historical and Cultural Context

Ancient Greek philosophy flourished from the 7th century BC to the 1st century AD, encompassing three distinct periods:

A. Hellenic Period

Monarchies, the dominant form of government in the Greek polis until 650 BC, were replaced by oligarchies and subsequently by tyrannies that spread throughout the Mediterranean colonies. In the 5th century BC, Athens emerged as a prominent city, adopting a democratic constitution under Pericles. This era marked a golden age for Athens. Following victory over the Persians in the Median Wars, Athens led the Delian League, and its democratic system was emulated by other cities. However, Athens' prosperity sparked jealousy in Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War. Sparta's... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Philosophy: From Pre-Socratics to Plato" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Why Kant is an Enlightenment Philosopher

• Kant embodies most of the features generally outlined in the previous paragraphs on the Enlightenment, directly related to the concerns illustrated.
• His Critique of Pure Reason is one of the most significant human attempts to prove that critical reason is the sole source of all human knowledge, being the main characteristic of man and his progress.
• Kant's philosophy is instantly recognizable in the priority given to reason as the supreme power and the only court that can dictate the truth. His judgments are subject to themes of religion, progress, society, morality, man, freedom, law, and, above all, one's duty to reason as the sole judge of all.
• Kant was consistent with the primacy

Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) facilitates decision-making, objective setting, and alternative generation. This structured brainstorming method yields focused results, proving valuable when aiming for common conclusions or proposals. NGT helps overcome obstacles in achieving unanimous agreements and clearly defining collective objectives. Ideally used with groups of up to twelve people, NGT sessions combine individual reflection with group interaction.

NGT works best with homogenous groups striving for consensus on a specific action plan. If conflicting viewpoints arise, separate nominal groups representing different perspectives can be formed. A typical NGT session follows these steps:

1. The leader introduces

Basic Propositions of Classical Mechanics (Newton)

• It is possible and desirable to reduce all natural phenomena to the interaction of material particles possessing objective reality.
• Only mathematically quantifiable qualities: extension and motion.
• It is sufficient to describe mathematically the laws governing movements: scientific explanation only needs to express the mathematical relationship between two covariant variables.
• Size and extent in space are objective properties of bodies.
• Mass is a property of all bodies.
• All movements in nature have a cause. In physical reality, there is no freedom. Everything is determined.
• Primary qualities of objects (shape, size, motion, and position) are independent of the observer.

The Problem of Human Freedom

St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy

Differences with Aristotle

St. Thomas Aquinas' political philosophy is based on Aristotle's. However, for St. Thomas, man's only natural order is God. Some key differences exist between them:

First Difference: The Perfect Community

For Aristotle, the state is the perfect community, satisfying all human needs and providing happiness. In St. Thomas' time, the concept of the city differed from Aristotle's. St. Thomas distinguished two types of communities:

• The house or family
• The city and the kingdom, understood as a grouping of cities, which St. Thomas considered the perfect community.

Second Difference: The Concept of Peace

Aristotle did not consider peace a necessary condition of a perfect community. He believed... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas' Political Philosophy: A Comparison with Aristotle" »

Aristotle's Ethics: The Pursuit of Happiness

Aristotle's ethics centers on the pursuit of happiness as its ultimate purpose. While some equate happiness with pleasure or wealth, Aristotle believed that the wise person finds it in living a life of intellectual virtue. This doesn't mean rejecting sensory pleasures or material goods, but rather enjoying them in moderation, ensuring they don't hinder the contemplation of truth.

The Concept of Virtue

Aristotle developed the concept of virtue as a balance. Human actions should be governed by prudence and reason. He distinguished between two types of virtue:

• Dianoetic virtues: Related to the exercise of intelligence.
• Ethical virtues: Related to sensitivity and affection.

All virtues are habits acquired... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics: Pursuit of Happiness and Virtue" »

Myth vs. Logos: The Dawn of Philosophy

Myth

Myths provided a sense of the world, unlike philosophy. A myth is a fantastical story, rich in symbols and metaphors, passed down through generations or created by a group of authors. Myths explain the world's origin and answer questions about the afterlife.

Characteristics of Myth:

1. A sacred narrative story.
2. Originates in a primordial, mythical time.
3. Recounts the exploits of supernatural or imaginary beings, hence its symbolic nature.
4. Considered a true narrative speaking of realities, not to be discussed or questioned.

Myth refers to a deeper meaning, an experience beyond history, serving as a reference for the present. Myths are typically transmitted orally, highlighting social identity and cohesion, playing... Continue reading "Myth and Logos: The Rise of Philosophical Thought" »

What is Philosophy?

Philosophy, a broad field of knowledge born in antiquity, is the pursuit of understanding through rational, systematic, and critical inquiry. Originating in Ionia, a Greek colony in Asia Minor, during the 6th century BC, philosophy emerged when humans began to observe their surroundings with wonder and sought to replace mythological explanations of reality with philosophical ones. Philosophy also examines the validity and fundamentals of other disciplines, such as the philosophy of culture, mind, and language.

Key Characteristics of Philosophy

• Rational: Based on logical arguments, empirical observations, and demonstrations.
• Systematic: Demands that all claims are related and hierarchical, ensuring consistency and order.
• Critical: