Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche uses the figure of Zarathustra to develop and link the four main elements that are present throughout his work and are exhaustively treated in this book: Death of God, the Übermensch, the Will to Power, and (although not explicitly developed) the eternal return of the identical.

Zarathustra is a hermit who lives secluded in the mountains, where he reflects on the life of man and nature. Once he feels the time is adequate, he decides to return to the world to share the fruit of his knowledge.

Death of God

Nietzsche notes that 'God is dead,' meaning that God is no longer a central force in our culture. Society is no longer primarily moved by religious sentiments but by political, economic, or scientific reasons. This is why Nietzsche... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Core Ideas in Zarathustra" »

Truth and Adequacy

It is based on the correspondence between thought and reality, that is, between thought and deed. It rests on three basic principles: there is an objective reality external to thought, the truth is the concordance between thought and reality, and rational knowledge is the mental representation of reality, facts, and processes.

Truth is the conformity or fitness between thought and reality. Therefore, if we have trials (the truth is given in trials) in which the predicate affirms or denies something of the subject, if the affirmation or the negation matches facts, it is true, and if not, it is false.

Application of Truth as Adequacy: Realism and its Classes

Realism is the theory that supports the ontological distinction between... Continue reading "Understanding Truth: Adequacy, Realism, and Consistency" »

Specific Characteristics of Modern Science

Experimentation

Galileo Galilei introduced a significant shift in the scientific method by emphasizing the crucial role of observation and experimentation. Recognizing that certain hypotheses could not be observed in everyday life, he advocated for creating controlled "ideal situations" through experiments to confirm or refute them.

Mathematization

Galileo firmly believed that nature operates according to regularities that can be expressed using mathematical functions. This emphasis on mathematization became a cornerstone of modern science, contrasting with earlier approaches to physics. By quantifying reality, scientists could avoid the subjectivity and ambiguity inherent in everyday language.

Scientific

Freedom of Ideology (Art. 16.1) guarantees freedom of religion and individual beliefs. Ownership of these beliefs resides with individuals and communities. This encompasses:

• The state's inability to impose a religion.
• The ability to express one's own ideas, whether written or oral.
• Protection of individuals' beliefs.

Freedom of Expression vs. Right to Information

We distinguish between freedom of expression, which is more subjective and deals with ideas and opinions, and the right to information, which concerns data, facts, and behaviors and is more objective. Both are inherent to the individual and connected to human dignity, autonomy, and freedom.

These rights extend beyond the individual sphere to legal, social, and political groups. Their purpose... Continue reading "Fundamental Rights: Freedom of Expression and More" »

Understanding Empiricism, Causality, and Perception

2. Identified with the new licenses, empiricism maintains that experience is the basis of all knowledge. It rejects any conclusion not derived from experience and repudiates hypothetical thought. Locke, the creator of psychological empiricism, opposed innate ideas.

3. Most sciences have a link with human nature. Logic concerns knowledge and its foundation. Politics deals with humans living in society, depending on each other. Morality concerns our feelings, and criticism concerns taste. This text attempts to bring together a system of science.

4. This paper discusses the theory of knowledge, including both inductive and deductive reasoning. Deductive thinking demonstrates that conclusions are... Continue reading "Understanding Empiricism, Causality, and Perception: A Humean Analysis" »

Cultural Context

Romanticism

Romanticism became the banner of the youth who wanted to spread the revolutionary spirit in politics, philosophy, literature, and the arts. This movement was a cry for freedom, both socially and artistically. The themes, cutting idealistic people, are the exaltation of the individual and privacy.

Artists from this period include Delacroix in painting, Chopin in music, and Victor Hugo in theater. Romanticism idealized history, society, and nature. For this reason, they were branded as evasive and replaced by realism.

Realism

Realism is an art movement concerned with the concrete reality of human beings. Thus, the usual topics are everyday life or the harsh conditions of workers.

In science and technology came breakthroughs... Continue reading "Romanticism, Realism, and Marxism: 19th Century Europe" »

Machiavelli's Political Philosophy

What Characteristics Did Machiavelli Attribute to Government?

• A ruler must not prioritize the perceived goodness of people.
• To govern effectively, a ruler may need to act against conventional notions of charity.
• A ruler must act independently, discerning what is truly beneficial or detrimental, according to the circumstances.

Note: Machiavelli's use of terms like "inhuman" or "infidel" should be understood within the historical context of his time and may not reflect modern ethical standards.

What is the Relationship Between Ethics and Politics According to Machiavelli?

Machiavelli posits that ethics and politics are entirely separate. He emphasizes political realism, suggesting that political action often necessitates... Continue reading "Machiavelli's Political Philosophy and Key Concepts in Governance" »

The Quest for Explanations: Beauty and Forces of Nature

The need to find explanations for the beauty of the cosmos and the forces of nature is a fundamental human drive. The inability to find appropriate responses can produce a confusion difficult to bear. To alleviate this anxiety and intellectual restlessness, the first explanations arose from mythology and religion. Nietzsche claimed that human beings preferred nothingness to a lack of belief, and any explanation was better than none.

Judeo-Christian Legend

These explanations appear in the Bible. This work tells that God created the earth in succession: the firmament, the seas, plants, stars, and finally, animals. His work culminated with the creation of man, who was in charge and master of... Continue reading "Origins of the Universe: From Mythology to Modern Science" »

The problem of reality and the problem of knowledge are intimately related; it is not possible to separate them. Plato argues that true knowledge must possess characteristics of objectivity and universality.

In his attempt to find the concepts or definitions of virtue as a basis for moral practice, Plato realized that the objects of sense perception are constantly changing (in a state of flux), and therefore these objects cannot be given a definition valid for all time. For this reason, science cannot be reduced to sensation, because science is objective, infallible, and universal knowledge. Plato does not accept that absolutely everything is subject to becoming, as the essence of things, i.e., the universal concept, escapes becoming.

Only the... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge" »

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that ethical principles are not universal. What is considered right or good is determined within each particular group and applies only to that group. Moral choices are incomparable across different groups due to varying traditions. Concepts of fair, unfair, good, and bad are always group-dependent, making it impossible to establish universally valid principles.

Relativistic Skepticism

Relativistic skepticism asserts that the lack of a universal criterion for choosing between options makes it impossible to distinguish between right and wrong, just and unjust. Despite this, decisions must be made, and rational justifications may be sought.

Socratic Intellectualism

Socratic intellectualism, an ethical theory,... Continue reading "Moral Relativism, Skepticism, and Socratic Ethics" »