Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact: Our mental contents are reduced to impressions and ideas, which form the basis of our thought experiments.

1. Relations of ideas: These establish relationships between ideas and concepts. Their truth depends not on experience, but on the meaning of the terms. Relations of ideas are universal and necessary statements; their negation is contradictory and absurd.
2. Matters of fact: These establish relationships among facts that must be verified through observation and experience. These claims are contingent; their negation is possible. Matters of fact often refer to the future. Relations of ideas and matters of fact are the only two types of propositions that can provide knowledge.

Critique of Metaphysics: Hume... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism: Relations of Ideas, Matters of Fact, and Critique of Metaphysics" »

Understanding Moral Duty and Its Implications

When we use words like "good" or "bad," their meaning can vary significantly depending on the context, particularly between non-moral and moral senses.

The Relative vs. Absolute Sense of 'Good' and 'Bad'

Non-Moral, Relative Sense

In a non-moral sense, "good" or "bad" (or what "you have to do") is relative. It depends on, or is connected to, something else. For example, "This is a good knife for cutting bread."

Moral, Absolute Sense

Conversely, when we use these words in a moral sense, their meaning is absolute. You must do something, or something is good or bad, regardless of whether you like it or not, or whether you want to. It simply is.

Moral Judgments and Absolute Obligations

When these words are used... Continue reading "Ethical Principles: Duty, Goodness, and Social Sanctions" »

Criteria for Recognizing Truth

The Role of Evidence

The term evidence comes from the Latin videre (to see) and refers to the particular forms of presentation that certain facts and propositions possess, making them appear obvious. Knowledge is evident when it produces certainty. However, there is no 100% satisfactory criterion, as the sense of certainty can be somewhat subjective.

Intersubjectivity in Truth Recognition

Intersubjectivity is based on the idea that knowledge is objective, shared by all, and not exclusive to a particular person. Compared to evidence, intersubjectivity has the advantage that the recognition of truth is not made by one person but by several. Truth is not something private but requires the consensus of the scientific... Continue reading "Philosophical Approaches to Truth and Knowledge" »

Comparing Philosophers on Society's Origins

Plato, Aristotle, and Locke had different views on how society originates. They considered whether society is derived from nature or from a different source. Aristotle believed that humans are naturally inclined to form families, which then join together to form clans, and eventually, societies. This bonding process is driven by a natural necessity, with no clear transition between the natural state of man and the constitution of a society.

Plato, however, argued that the State should meet a default model based on pre-existing ideas of justice and right, not nature. Locke initially saw the natural state as one where individuals are driven by their desires, leading to conflicts and a state of war. However,... Continue reading "Comparing Plato, Aristotle, and Locke on Society's Origins" »

Rene Descartes (1595-1650)

Born in La Haye en Touraine, France.

A philosopher and mathematician, Descartes' great work is Discourse on Method, published in 1637.

In Discourse on Method, he introduces methodical doubt, subjecting all knowledge to rigorous scrutiny.

His famous formulation: "I think, therefore I am."

Descartes aspired to establish firm and lasting foundations in the sciences.

Rules of Method

• The principle of evidence (or methodical doubt).
• The precept of analysis.
• The precept of synthesis.
• The process of verification.

Theory of Two Substances

A substance exists independently, requiring nothing else for its existence.

Part of the cogito (thought): Descartes argues that he is solely a thinking substance, as even the most radical skeptic cannot... Continue reading "Rene Descartes, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, Immanuel Kant, and Wilhelm Wundt: Key Philosophers and Their Theories" »

Key Principles of Scientific Work

Several key principles characterize the work of a scientist:

• Asking Questions: It is essential to choose crucial questions that will not lead to a dead end. We must ask questions that have a modest but useful response.
• Formulation of the Hypothesis: This involves forming an idea or hypothesis about natural phenomena. The formulation of hypotheses is a key moment in scientific knowledge and is the most creative.
• Testing of the Hypothesis: We need to show that the idea or hypothesis has scientific validity. Experiments can be conducted to test our hypothesis.
• Formulation of Hypotheses or Theories: General laws of nature are typically formulated as major theories that must be consistent and demonstrable.

Considerations

The Pre-Socratic Philosophers

The Milesians (Monists: One Arché)

• Thales: Considered the first Milesian thinker, he proposed that the Arché (the fundamental principle) is water. He reasoned this based on observations: solid land seemingly floats on water, water reflects the heavens, and water in its gaseous state forms clouds.
• Anaximander: Believed the Arché to be the Apeiron (the boundless or infinite), a substance in perpetual motion, from which opposing forces (hot-dry, like stars; cold-wet, like Earth) arise. He also proposed that living beings evolved from fish.
• Anaximenes: Identified air as the Arché, a limitless substance that transforms through condensation and rarefaction.

Pythagoreans

The Pythagoreans believed that number is the Arché.... Continue reading "Pre-Socratic Philosophers: From Thales to Socrates" »

Plato's Philosopher-King

The Ideal City

For Plato, the philosopher-king is essential for a just society. In The Republic, he presents a hierarchical society divided into three groups:

• Craftsmen: Provide resources like food through productive work.
• Guardians/Warriors: Defend the city from internal and external threats. This class is crucial as it produces the leaders, who are the best guardians. They live a distinct life, without private property, family, or typical housing, and women marry within their class.
• Philosophers: Rule the state. Plato believed philosophers, possessing knowledge of ideas and reality, are best suited to govern. These leaders are selected based on physical and psychological excellence.

Plato's ideal city is founded on... Continue reading "Plato's Philosopher-King & Aristotle's Substance" »

Some authors argue that the reconstruction of urban life had its origin in the desire for peace that brought about the formation of communal bonds. This urban renaissance provided a great service to royalty. Cities offered loyalty to the king. The resurgence of cities initiated intense intellectual work, which greatly benefited monarchs. The bourgeoisie became an indispensable support for the king when threatened from outside.

Cultural Flourishing and Intellectual Growth

An urban culture developed, marked by the emergence of universities and important institutions. These sought to control cultural anarchy and defended their autonomous operation, governed by their own statutes and regulations, often with a dependence on the Pope. They promoted... Continue reading "Medieval Europe: Urban Revival, Royal Power, Papal Influence" »