Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Two Positions in Modernity: Reason and Senses

1) Empiricism: Knowledge originates and concludes with experience, derived from sensory information. Two types of perceptions exist: impressions and ideas. (Hume)

2) Rationalism: The dominant philosophical tradition of the 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing confidence in reason as the primary tool for understanding reality. Reason plays a crucial role in discovering innate ideas for true knowledge. (Descartes)

3) Kant: Sensations provide the raw material for knowledge, but human reason organizes it in a universal manner.

The Subjective Construction of Knowledge

1) Sensations: All living beings share sensitivity to external stimuli. While sensitivity varies, sense organs are the structures through which... Continue reading "Epistemology: Reason, Senses, and Knowledge Construction" »

John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke was a representative of philosophical empiricism, a thinker, an intellectual, and an advocate for a liberal regime. He was a philosopher, politician, physician, and chemist. In his *Essay Concerning Human Understanding* and his *Letter Concerning Toleration*, he defended religious tolerance.

Locke lived through the Middle Ages, a time marked by religious and political intolerance, centralization of power, and a lack of peace and security. Violence, bigotry, and inequality dominated the era. He believed that the solution to the disputes between the Christian sects that arose after the Reformation lay in tolerance. Today, his remarks advocate for a secular state.

His principal works include *Two Treatises of Civil... Continue reading "Key Philosophers and Thinkers: Renaissance to Enlightenment" »

Anthropological Dualism: Body and Soul

Amdo's aspects of anthropological dualism (body and soul) are different, but a continental union. Each person occupies the body temporarily and then is reincarnated.

Plato

For Plato, man is composed of body and soul. The soul is pure, divine, and eternal, while the body is material, temporal, and not divine. The body is a kind of rush to the soul, which wants to get rid of it in two ways:

• Through Philosophy (spiritual effort)
• Through Death

However, the soul survives and can be incarnated in another body.

Aristotle

Aristotle has a biological conception of man, who says he is an inseparable unity of body and soul, which is the vital principle.

Descartes

For Descartes, the soul is an ego (I) that thinks: Ego cogito

Aristotle: Ethics, Virtue, and the Polis

The status of citizens and humans tends toward an end or highest good: happiness. This involves understanding why a contemplative life dedicated to rational activity is considered the ultimate aspiration. What in everyday life is often just a great aspiration.

The Pursuit of Happiness and Virtue

The soul's rational part encompasses intellectual virtues, such as dianoetic wisdom, and also has a function related to moral or ethical virtues.

Intellectual and Ethical Virtue

Dianoetic virtue is the result of instruction, while ethical virtue is achieved through habituation. This led Aristotle to state that ethical virtue is a habit. For this philosopher, it is not enough merely to know the rule; one must create... Continue reading "Aristotle's Ethics and Politics" »

Descartes' Methodical Doubt and the Foundation of Knowledge

Mental contents systematically subjected to methodical doubt will be:

1. The lessons learned.
2. The data of the senses (sometimes deceptive). This leads us to doubt the experience of the outside world. It even makes us doubt the existence of our own body, because we know it only through the senses.
3. Our experiences (as we say, anything other than the fruit of a dream). In many cases, it is impossible to distinguish waking from sleep, since the latter are presented to us as vividly as the experiences we have when awakened.
4. Our own thinking (and sometimes thoughts are also a source of deception, or perhaps an evil genius is deceiving me). The conception that has doubled in the period is free omnipotence,

Kantian Moral and Practical Principles

Kantian moral-practical principles rely on what may be two types: maxims and laws. Maxims are subjective grounds that the subject considers valid for their individual will. Laws are valid principles for all, and objective principles that can build real moral duties.

Two Types of Morality

• Heteronomous Morality: Moral imperatives with explicit material content. The substance of the duty or rule is based on the supposition that the content is good, and its imperatives are always hypothetical or empirical. "Doing X is a duty because X is good."
• Autonomous Morality: Moral duty serves only as the imperative. It is universal and is fundamentally good, and imperatives are always categorical and universal. "Doing X

Editorial: The Newspaper's Voice

The editorial reflects the institutional viewpoint of a newspaper on a current topic. It is unsigned but written by esteemed staff and overseen by the director.

Functions of an Editorial:

• Informative: Explains facts and highlights their importance.
• Interpretative: Analyzes facts, context, causes, and effects.
• Persuasive: Uses rhetoric to influence reader opinion.
• Appellate: Aims to motivate readers to take action.

Themes: Editorials typically address political and economic concerns, less frequently social or cultural issues.

Tone and Style: Editorials adopt a cautious, authoritative, and solemn tone, with clear, concise, and precise writing.

Letters to the Editor: Reader's Perspective

Letters to the editor are reader... Continue reading "Editorial and Letters to the Editor: Functions and Structure" »

Wittgenstein: A Pivotal Figure in Philosophy

Ludwig Wittgenstein stands as a truly important philosopher, marking a significant point in the history of philosophy where repeating previous approaches became insufficient. His unique perspective distinguished him greatly. While comparisons might be drawn to the genius and commitment of Socrates, Wittgenstein's path through philosophy followed its own distinct model.

Life, Talents, and Career

He was a man of superior talents, demonstrating expertise not only in philosophy but also in mathematics, logic, and music. His diverse life included:

• Studying engineering
• Serving in the First World War
• Working as a teacher
• Working as a gardener
• Becoming a professor at the University of Cambridge

Major Works and Core

How to Evaluate the Consequences of an Act?

Only by the amount of happiness or "the opposite of happiness" they produce. Mill clarified that the consequences have not been evaluated with respect to an act but respect for the rule in which this event is significant.

Who Does Utilitarianism Affect?

In principle, all beings capable of suffering (and that includes non-human animals) are subject to morality according to utilitarianism. This includes a consideration of equal rights for everyone, sometimes described as a principle of impartiality.

What is "Fair"?

Impartiality means the happiness of each person involved in a truly moral decision counts equally. In other words, "everyone goes for one and only one." According to Mill: "The happiness which... Continue reading "Utilitarianism: Happiness, Impartiality, and Equality" »

Epistemology: Understanding Knowledge, Truth, and Reality

Epistemology is in charge of analyzing knowledge, determining its source and limits. From the 17th century, it acquired importance for two reasons: the importance of natural sciences, and because before beginning an investigation, we must know if we can reach the end.

Distinguishing Belief, Opinion, and Knowledge

• Opinion: We are not sure, nor can we prove it.
• Belief:
  • Uncertainty: We are not really sure of what we affirm.
  • Assertive: We are sure of something, but we cannot prove it.
• Knowledge: A belief of which we are confident and can prove.

Types of Knowledge

• Theoretical Knowledge: Formed by information describing the world. It arises from the desire to know. It consists of:
  • Describing and verifying