Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hume's Critique of the Idea of Substance

We must ask what impression derives from this idea? We cannot assign any impression to this idea. It has no reality, as the limits of our knowledge are the impressions themselves. Hume is therefore eliminating innate ideas and rejecting abstract ideas.

Impressions are always those that precede and supply the whole idea. Imagination makes its first appearance in a previous appearance. Therefore, the idea of substance can only come from our imagination, not derived from any sensitive impression.

Hume argues that the idea of substance is merely a collection of simple qualities to which we apply a particular name to remember them. This does not mean that substance is a surviving entity or a metaphysical concept.... Continue reading "David Hume's Empirical Philosophy: Substance and Causality" »

Understanding Grammar: Rules and Their Rationale

Grammar and rules are undoubtedly synonymous in the minds of learners and teachers. The association between them is powerful because the partnership has been fruitful. Rules have served language learning by capturing generalizations about morphosyntactic regularities in a language. Rules also allow material developers to work with "right-sized" chunks of language, helping students deal in an orderly and systematic way with the grammar of the target language. Most language teachers work with rules in some way, even if the rules are not stated in formal metalinguistic terms.

The Rationale Behind Grammar Rules

It is important for learners not only to know the rules, but also to understand why they... Continue reading "Unlocking Grammar: Rules, Reasons, and Effective Language Learning" »

Methodical Doubt in Cartesian Philosophy

Methodical doubt is an essential method of Cartesian philosophy, which aims at a radical foundation of knowledge. It seeks to reject as inadequate all beliefs that may give rise to doubt. The practice of methodological doubt calls into question the value of the senses and deductive reasoning. The physical world and the external body do not exceed the actual methodical doubt. Only the Cogito resists the ravages of methodological doubt.

This method was used by Descartes to discover the Cogito, a concept that expresses, on the one hand, the first, whole, and absolutely true truth ("I think, therefore I am"), and secondly, the fact that this truth concerns a self-conscious mind.

Methodical doubt, especially... Continue reading "Methodical Doubt and Raciovitalism: Key Philosophical Concepts" »

18th Century Philosophy and Science

The Enlightenment and Scientific Breakthroughs

The 18th century witnessed remarkable scientific advancements, particularly with Isaac Newton's breakthroughs. Newton emphasized the importance of combining experience and reason to understand the laws governing the motion of bodies. His method involved observing nature and ensuring that sensory observations aligned with the order of reason.

In philosophy, Immanuel Kant's work contributed significantly to the ongoing discussion on the origin and foundation of knowledge—a topic previously addressed by Continental Rationalism and British Empiricism. Both currents influenced Kant's thinking.

Another philosophical debate centered around the scientific nature of metaphysics.... Continue reading "18th Century Philosophy & Science: Enlightenment Era Thought" »

Aristotle's Political Philosophy: The Polis and Governance

This analysis delves into two core theses regarding Aristotle's political philosophy, as presented in the original text. First, it examines the assertion that the city (polis) is the supreme community, formed to achieve a superior good. Second, it explores the fundamental, qualitative difference Aristotle posits between the governance of the polis and that of other communities.

Justifying Aristotle's Theses

Aristotle's first thesis, concerning the city as the supreme community, is built upon two foundational premises:

• The city is a community.
• All communities aim to achieve some good.

This implies that individuals associate to gain something, even when forming a city. Aristotle extends this... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy of the City and Governance" »

Roman Law Case Study: Family Status

Case Scenario: Faul and Dercy's Children

Faul, a 28-year-old Roman citizen and sui iuris, marries Dercy, a Greek woman, through confarreatio. A year after their wedding, Dercy becomes pregnant. Faul dies, and eight months later, a boy and a girl are born.

Question: Determine the legal status of each child.

Analysis of Children's Legal Status

In Roman law, an individual's legal status was defined by three key components:

• Status Libertatis (Freedom Status): Whether a person was free or a slave.
• Status Civitatis (Citizenship Status): Whether a person was a Roman citizen, a Latin, or a foreigner (peregrinus).
• Status Familiae (Family Status): Whether a person was sui iuris (independent, not under anyone's power) or alieni

Ortega y Gasset's Theory of Knowledge

In 1916, José Ortega y Gasset distinguished two major periods in the history of thought: the realist and the idealist. Ortega's philosophy critically examines both. Realism, originating from Greek thought, considers a thing as an independent reality, distinct from human perception. It posits that things leave their mark on the mind, imprinting their image like a seal on wax – a concept Ortega termed the "thing-as-substance" metaphor.

Idealism, conversely, discards this notion. It asserts that consciousness finds things, but these things do not emerge into consciousness as external entities. Instead, things are objects of consciousness, which are essentially ideas – a concept Ortega described as the "... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy: Knowledge, Life, and History" »

Argumentative Composition: Structure and Writing

Understanding Argumentative Composition

• Definition: An argumentative composition requires you to present your opinion on a topic, analyzing both sides by presenting arguments for and against.
• Introduction: This section is very important because it gives the reader the first impression of the text.
• Body: Write the ideas for and against the topic.
• Conclusion: This is also very important. It closes the composition, aiming to convince the reader that your essay has covered all the most important arguments about the topic.

Steps to Write an Argumentative Text

1. Make two lists: one for advantages and another for disadvantages.
2. Decide the order in which you will mention the points or ideas.
3. Plan what to include

Identity and Friendship

Identity

Identity is the awareness of being oneself, unique and unlike any other.

Friendship

Responsibility: A responsible friend acts for the other's good, avoiding harm.

Justice: A true friend doesn't ask for unjust things or engage in abusive behavior.

Solidarity: Friends stand together in good times and bad, sharing joys and sorrows.

Sex, Sexuality, and Family

Sex and Sexuality

Sex: The biological mechanism of reproduction in living beings.

Sexuality: A broader concept encompassing sex and affection.

Family Functions

• Reproductive
• Educational
• Emotional
• Economic
• Healthcare

Parenting Styles

• Authoritative: Demanding, rigid, with limited affection. Often disregards children's feelings and perspectives.
• Assertive: Demanding yet warm. Sets

Kant's Metaphysics of Morals: Imperatives and Duty

This commentary discusses a fragment of Chapter 2 of Kant's Metaphysics of Morals. The text exposes the difference between the hypothetical and categorical imperatives and affirms the latter as the maxim that must become the standard for all men.

The text can be divided into two parts, consistent with Kant's formal ethics. The first part covers the initial paragraphs (concerning the nature of the imperative) and the second part (the third paragraph) expressly states the categorical imperative.

The Distinction Between Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives

When analyzing the first part, we deduce that an imperative is simply a principle that commands. However, for Kant, this command need not be... Continue reading "Kant's Categorical Imperative and the Foundations of Formal Ethics" »