Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato and Nietzsche: Contrasting Philosophical Perspectives

Nietzsche's thought (19th century) is characterized as an irrational vitalism. Therefore, it is interesting to compare it with a thinker who conceived reality in a completely different way: Plato's rational idealism. Common to both authors is the defense of an aristocratic sense of existence, although from very different perspectives.

Plato uses the Myth of the Cave to make clear that what is commonly accepted as true are nothing but shadows, and very few truly have access to the knowledge of true reality. Nietzsche, in turn, criticized the commonly considered lofty values of Western culture. He argued that their origin in Platonic thought was based on dogmatic, decadent, and flawed... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: Plato, Nietzsche, and Aquinas" »

Nietzsche's View on Politics as Illusion

For Friedrich Nietzsche, conventional politics belongs to the realm of pure illusion. He argued that politics, as historically practiced, was merely a battleground where competing interests clashed, offering prospective promises of future achievements—promises he viewed as ultimately hollow.

The Potential for Genuine Community

Nietzsche saw potential value in political action only when focused on rebuilding the people (das Volk) and fostering the ideal of a genuine community. He believed only such a community could rescue humanity from the dire state caused by the democratic egalitarianism promoted by modernity through its action. For Nietzsche, there could be no authentic politics separate from the people,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Politics, the State, and Democracy" »

Self-Knowledge and Professional Orientation

Personal self-knowledge forms the basis of the professional orientation process. It is very important to know and understand our own characteristics, limitations, and possibilities in order to make informed choices in the decision-making process. This is crucial for academic and professional decisions because our studies should align with our future aspirations.

Values and Their Influence

Values are the principles that guide our behavior and life choices.

• Personal values: leadership skills, honesty.
• Professional values: earning money, having free time.
• Cultural values: democracy.

Behavioral Styles: Assertive, Aggressive, and Passive

Assertive behavior: This involves expressing one's opinions, needs, and feelings... Continue reading "Self-Knowledge and Career Choices: A Comprehensive Analysis" »

Philosophical Views on Freedom

Schopenhauer: Freedom as Illusion

"Man is free to do whatever he wants, but not want what he wants." One cannot always want what one wants, but rather what one may want. Freedom, according to Schopenhauer, is like a mirage, an illusion tied to his pessimism. Schopenhauer believed that life is a bad deal, not worth the trouble. He tells us that our final decision seems a mystery when facing a difficult choice. The human being is determined by the strongest motive. We let ourselves be carried away by the strongest motive. When the strongest motive asserts its power over the will, the choice is often completely different from what was expected. He argued we are as certain of this determination as we are that water... Continue reading "Philosophical Views on Human Freedom" »

Mill's Utilitarianism: The Pursuit of Happiness

In this work, Mill attempts to show that the ideal of the greatest happiness of the greatest number is a perfectly moral ideal, an ideal which is the sole discretion of morality.

Mill anticipates the idea that the uses of "reason" and "rationality" are many, and it is absurd to attempt to reduce all rational justification to the model of logic or of science. What he states in A System of Logic, and develops extensively in Utilitarianism, is that reason is rooted in desire (relationship to Hume).

Thus, for Mill, the moral is justified only when human desires accord with its precepts. Do we not want mankind to be happy? Do we not also want this especially and above all things? Then happiness is desirable,... Continue reading "Mill's Utilitarianism: Happiness as the Moral Ideal" »

Kant's Text

Author and Historical Context

Written in 1785, Immanuel Kant, a key figure of the Enlightenment, cautioned against using individuals as means to an end. This period marked a transition, exemplified by the French Revolution, which Kant observed with cautious admiration. He warned against actions leading to irrationality, such as the revolutionary Terror.

Theme

The core theme is that rational actions treat people as ends in themselves, not as tools. This distinction arises from a person's capacity for reason, granting them dignity that only other rational beings can recognize.

Key Ideas

• Humans are ends in themselves, not means to an end.
• Conditional inclinations have relative worth.
• Inclinations lack intrinsic value; rationality prefers self-

• The Illusion of Self and Identity

  Hume argues that the self is not a simple, enduring entity. The mind confuses the ideas of "identity" and "succession." Memory allows us to recall past impressions, creating a succession of different views. We then mistakenly ascribe these to a single "subject," confusing succession with identity. Hume rejects the idea of a soul, deeming the question of immortality superfluous.

• Hume on God and Divine Substance

  Hume's position on God aligns with his views on the world and the soul. In Section XI of "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding," he addresses God and the afterlife, considering criticisms of substance and causality. Hume denies the validity of metaphysical proofs for God's existence, asserting that

Happiness and Justice

Aristotle says that every action and choice aim at some good. But there are many goods and purposes of a very different nature. Happiness, or the good, seems, then, to be that toward which all actions constituting human life are directed and ordered. Just as we are necessarily moral, we are also inclined toward happiness. Human beings by nature tend toward happiness. Happiness, for one, may be money and wealth; for another, political power. The disposition of justice is that by which people practice what is right and want to act fairly and justly. Justice is variable, encompassing different forms such as:

• Justice as a virtue
• Quality of social order
• Commutative justice
• Distributive justice
• Legal justice

Material and Teleological

Explanatory Models of Knowledge

Realism: Reality (the object to be known) exists independently and is not dependent on the subject. It implies the existence of the world. The person has an open mind and believes that the ability to understand lies within oneself and to know things as they are. Moreover, they possess a natural, spontaneous, and confident attitude.

Idealism: We know as we perceive, depending on the individual. A fly perceives differently from us, so its way of knowing is different. Idealism questions the existence of the world. The person believes that the ability to understand depends on the individual, and knowledge depends on the way one perceives. They adopt an artificial, voluntary, and critical attitude towards learning.

Understanding

Descartes' Proofs for God's Existence

René Descartes, starting from the doubt in his own mind, which indicates imperfection, raises questions about the origin of the idea of perfection within him. He doubts everything except his own existence, recognizing his imperfection. Thus, since this idea cannot come from nothing or from himself (being imperfect), Descartes concludes that it must come from a perfect being, God, who has "put us in as the seal of the architect."

The Argument from the Idea of Perfection

This is the first demonstration of God's existence: the idea of perfection must be given by a perfect being. Since we, as imperfect beings, possess this idea but do not embody perfection, the idea must originate from God.

God as Guarantor of