Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Affirming Life

Nietzsche seeks to affirm life, accepting it as it is: a spontaneous instinct that manifests as a struggle of forces where some are created and others are destroyed, where nothing is permanent. Life is a creative force, asserting the will to power, which is the desire to live (vital force). In his critique of philosophy, Nietzsche states that decadence starts with Socrates and is reflected in the traditional concepts of Western culture, which is a reflection of Platonic Dualism.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a consequence of the decadence of Western culture, which has fundamentally denied life and affirmed nothing. There are two types of nihilism:

• Passive Nihilism: This is the discovery that all cultural values are false and everything Western

Introduction to British Empiricism

Empiricism is a significant philosophical tradition in English thought. While it critiques rationalism, both share common ground as heirs of Cartesian philosophy, focusing on 'ideas' as fundamental to understanding.

Metaphysics Critiqued

Hume critiques metaphysical ideas, particularly the concept of substance in its extensive, thoughtful, and infinite aspects.

Critique of the Idea of God

Hume argues against causal inferences for God's existence, asserting that such arguments illegitimately move from impressions to non-impressions. He posits that valid ideas must originate from impressions; otherwise, they should be rejected.

Impact of Causality Criticism

The empiricist criterion, limiting certain ideas to impressions,... Continue reading "British Empiricism: Hume's Critique of Metaphysics, Self, and God" »

Descartes on Clarity and Distinction

For René Descartes, clarity and distinction are key features of evidence, signifying knowledge present to the mind. He considered knowledge genuine only if it met both characteristics:

• It is clear: Present and accessible to the attentive mind.
• It is distinct: Precise and separated from all other objects, containing only what is clear within itself.

Knowledge must possess both clarity and distinction to serve as a reliable foundation.

Descartes' Criterion of Truth

The criterion Descartes established to determine the truth of our beliefs is evidence: true propositions are those that present themselves to the intellect as clear and distinct. An approach involves the requirement or standard used for evaluating something;... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Descartes' Philosophy: Mind, Truth, and Reality" »

From Cosmology to Science

Early questions about the order of the universe led to the development of cosmogonies. When the existence of principles or laws explaining the regularity of events was sought, the first science of the universe, or cosmology, emerged. Cosmology is the part of philosophy that studies the physical world, providing a general picture through critical reflection. One of the initial key questions concerned the relationship between reason, senses, and observation techniques. With the rise of the scientific method, cosmology was gradually replaced by empirical science.

Defining Science

Science is a human activity that generates a systematic and organized body of knowledge using laws and general principles. However, not all disciplines... Continue reading "Understanding Science: Methods, Classification, and Limits" »

Epistemology in Kant's *Critique of Pure Reason*

In the *Critique of Pure Reason* (CPR), Kant answers the first question raised: What can I know? The question of what we know leads to a more specific question: whether or not a metaphysical science is possible, if one can gain scientific knowledge regarding the world, God, or the soul. In his view, there are two conditions that any intended scientific discourse should satisfy: universality in judgment and the provision of information. This being so, he proposes to operate a sea-change in the epistemological field because, if so far we have assumed that "all our knowledge must be guided by the objects," there is no way of knowing something in them *a priori*. He then expresses the need for objects

Argumentative Texts: Key Features

An argumentative text advocates an idea through the presentation of reasons, aiming to convince the recipient. Key characteristics include:

• Subjectivity: The author expresses their vision of the subject from their own point of view.
• Thematic Issue: Commonly discusses political issues, politics, religion, or education.
• Persuasion: Attempts to convince the intended recipient through data and information that is as complete as possible.
• Clarity and Order: Essential for the arguments to be understood.

Argumentative structures:

• Deductive Structure: Presents a general thesis and attempts to show particular arguments.
• Inductive Structure: Goes from the particular to the general main idea.

The Claim

It is an argumentative text... Continue reading "Argumentative Texts and the Generation of '98: Features" »

The Peloponnesian War and its Impact on Athenian Society

The Peloponnesian War pitted **Sparta** against **Athens**. Civil strife resulted from tensions accumulated over a century between two different social and political systems: the oligarchic and anarchic Spartan system, and the Athenian system, with increasing participation of the people.

Cultural Tensions in Ancient Greece

On the cultural level, there was tension between the persistence of religious traditions and the spirit of innovation and streamlining. We can see this in Greek literature, especially in the tragedies of Sophocles, Euripides, and others.

Plato's Philosophy: The Search for the Ideal

This search for the ideal, or perfect, characterizes the philosophy of **Plato**, who conceives... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice, Ideal City, and the Philosopher-King" »

Marx's Criticisms of H, L, R Models

Marx's criticisms of the models by H, L, R (presumably Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau) include:

1. They start with an abstract individual, i.e., considered separately from the context that gave them birth.
2. They assert the state is rational and universal, whereas Marx contended that, far from being a mediating instrument, it becomes a dominator.

Critique of Abstract Separation

The modern theory of abstract principles, or "abstract separation" (Abstracto separado), means that it abstractly considers and separates individuals from the context that has engendered them. Individuals are the product of a culture, society, and historical epoch, and only exist from this conception. The idea of a "state of nature" as a separate... Continue reading "Marx's Core Concepts: Work, Alienation, and History" »

Influences on Nietzsche's Philosophy

Nineteenth-century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, born in Saxony, received a large number of influences. These were based on the classical Greek world during an early stage, and various philosophers of the modern age in the second stage of his thought.

His engagement with ancient Greece focuses on the tension between the Dionysian and Apollonian worldviews. He strongly denied the influence of Socrates and Plato, but accepted Heraclitus, taking from him the claim of the existence of contradiction and movement, and studies on change and opposition.

In his first phase, the influence of the Sophists, Stoicism, and early Christianity can also be observed.

In the second phase, we find a strong impact from Enlightenment... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Influences, Life, and Philosophical Context" »

Immanuel Kant: Life and Work

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a German philosopher, widely considered to be one of the most influential thinkers of the modern era. Born in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) on April 22, 1724, Kant was educated at the Collegium Fredericianum and the University of Königsberg. At school, he studied the classics, and at university, he focused on physics and mathematics. After his father's death, he was forced to leave university and earn a living as a private tutor. In 1755, with the help of a friend, he resumed his studies and obtained his doctorate.

He then taught at the university for 15 years, initially lecturing on science and mathematics, and gradually expanding to cover almost all branches of philosophy.... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and the Copernican Revolution" »