Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Epistemology: Understanding Knowledge, Truth, and Reality

Epistemology is in charge of analyzing knowledge, determining its source and limits. From the 17th century, it acquired importance for two reasons: the importance of natural sciences, and because before beginning an investigation, we must know if we can reach the end.

Distinguishing Belief, Opinion, and Knowledge

• Opinion: We are not sure, nor can we prove it.
• Belief:
  • Uncertainty: We are not really sure of what we affirm.
  • Assertive: We are sure of something, but we cannot prove it.
• Knowledge: A belief of which we are confident and can prove.

Types of Knowledge

• Theoretical Knowledge: Formed by information describing the world. It arises from the desire to know. It consists of:
  • Describing and verifying

Here's a list of English vocabulary words, phrases, and expressions with their definitions:

Vocabulary Definitions

• Annoyed: Annoyed, angry.
• Appreciate: Look with favor.
• Approach: Approach.
• Avoid: Avoid.
• Allow: Permit.
• As long as: Provided.
• Beg: Ask.
• Boarding school: Boarding school.
• Burst into tears: Breaking to mourn.
• Change for the better: Change for the better.
• Collapse: Derrumbamiento.
• Complicated: Complicated.
• Confident: Confidant.
• Cope with: Power.
• Crowded: Crowded.
• Dare: Challenging.
• Doubt: Doubt.
• Deal: Treatment.
• Disapproval: Disapproval.
• Disturb: Disturb.
• Forbidden: Forbidden.
• Gather: Gather.
• Go too far: Go that far.
• Goal: Objective.
• Graceful: Elegant.
• Hardly: Hard.
• Hesitate: Hesitation.
• Ignore: Ignore.
• Interrupt: Interrupt.
• Knock over: Run over.
• Matter: Matter.
• Miss:

Plato's Theory of Ideas

The Theory of Ideas is the foundational element of Platonic philosophy. In essence, it defends the existence of the absolute, which stands in opposition to the corporeal, mortal, and relative world.

Unlike personal thought, the absolute that Plato refers to is impersonal. Plato maintained that reality is divided into two main realms: the Sensible World and the Intelligible World, or World of Ideas. The absolute he refers to is precisely that realm of reality. The Sensible World is the set of entities accessible to the senses—realities that are changing, multiple, born, and die—and are captured through the senses. The Intelligible World, or World of Ideas, is populated by entities that are absolute, universal, independent,... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Ideas: Understanding the Absolute" »

Ancient Wisdom

1^st Premise: All men tend by nature to know. 2^nd Premise: Knowledge through the senses gives wisdom. Thesis Conclusion: Human wisdom is to know the first causes and principles of things. (Fifteenth century BC) Aristotle tells us the ultimate goal of wisdom: knowledge of first principles.

Introduction to Early Greek Thought

The birthplace of Greek philosophy was the coast of Asia Minor, and the first philosophers were Ionians. Philosophy is both an individual activity and a product of society, reflected in the conception of law as the order of the cosmos. Philosophy arises from a shift in thinking: the abandonment of mythical thought and the emergence of rational thought. Mythical elements are found not only in the first philosophers... Continue reading "Origins of Western Philosophy: From Myth to Reason" »

Descartes, Rationalism, and the Enlightenment

René Descartes' philosophy significantly influenced the course of thought, paving the way for the 17th-century Enlightenment. The freedoms proclaimed during the Enlightenment—such as the autonomy of reason over the weight of authority and religious dogmatism in fields from politics to science—can be considered progress that contributes to our freedoms today.

The Mathematization of Reality

Regarding mathematization and scientific-technical development, Descartes proposed a method heavily influenced by mathematics. Contemporary Western science often continues under the premise that reality is mathematicizable. Knowing things involves quantifying them, and the mathematical model remains central to... Continue reading "Descartes vs Hume: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Modern Thought" »

Plato's Philosophy of Justice and Society

Plato's philosophy referenced a division of worlds: the ideal world (intelligible, perfect) and the real world (perceptible, imperfect). He posited that an ideal society would be divided into distinct classes:

• The class of the wise (philosopher-kings)
• The class of warriors
• The providers class (comprising the majority of the population)

Plato justified social inequality through these classes. A second notion of justice, according to Plato, was the equal treatment for all individuals within similar classes, encapsulated by the principle: "give each what they deserve."

St. Augustine's Legal and Philosophical Concepts

St. Augustine, a principal exponent of Patristic thought, was greatly influenced by Plato. Augustine'... Continue reading "Justice and Law: Ancient Philosophy to Medieval Church Authority" »

Hume's Radical Empiricism

David Hume, a radical empiricist, argued that all ideas must be preceded by an impression. If there is no corresponding impression, the idea is not valid. This includes the concept of causality (cause and effect). Immanuel Kant, on the other hand, stated that while everything begins with experience, not everything arises from it.

Hume believed that our perceptions had no causality at all, but were merely linked by habit. The awareness of the principle of causality comes *after* the experience of apparent causal relationships. For Kant, however, the principle of causality is fundamental and necessary for the perception of sequences of events, that is, to limit knowledge to the *a priori*. Impressions are the experience;... Continue reading "Hume vs. Kant: Understanding Causality and Knowledge" »

Hume on Causality and Kant's Response

David Hume argued that cause and effect cannot be discovered by reason, but only by experience. Any argument dependent on experience is based on the similarity discovered between objects in the past, leading us to expect similar effects in similar cases. Custom, therefore, leads us to believe events will repeat as they have previously. Confidence in the future is not based on reason, nor is it absolute security; it is merely a belief.

Immanuel Kant, responding partly to Hume, sought a solid foundation for Mathematical Physics. Judgments, Kant argued, should be synthetic (expanding our knowledge), yet also universal and necessary, valid in all circumstances and times. Science cannot rely solely on analytical... Continue reading "Kant's Synthesis of Empiricism and Rationalism" »

ConoSentidos (Sensory Knowledge)

Sensory knowledge, like in the living area, incorporates living without the defined form. It sensitively captures perceived objects without material capture. Perception is accurate and characterizes existing qualities in the sensuous faculty in the world. The soul is the ability to receive forms, so instantly perception of the unit is a sensitive faculty that has taken shape.

ConoLogica (Logical Knowledge): The Syllogism

A study on investigations said that there was nothing prior to logic that deserves mention, so its creator is considered the founder of that branch of knowledge. If logic is not introduced in science, it is because it is considered an instrument for scientific knowledge, prior to science itself.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Knowledge, Logic, Ethics, and Happiness" »

Kant's Life in Historical Context

Kant lived in Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great, the "philosopher king," whose form of government was enlightened despotism - "everything for the people, without the people" - with its promotion of social reforms. Internationally, momentous historical events occurred, such as the independence of the United States and its Constitution's proclamation, and the French Revolution (1789) - and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, which are the basis of the modern liberal sociocultural democratic framework. Socially, a crisis occurred between the aristocratic and hierarchical class society of the Old Regime and the triumphant bourgeoisie of the French Revolution. These were the main actors... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Impact" »