Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The 17th Century Knowledge Crisis and Its Responses

The profound crisis of knowledge that emerged in the seventeenth century prompted various philosophical and scientific responses. One significant path was the development of new scientific methodologies aimed at constructing true knowledge, a direction influenced by the rationalism of Descartes. British Empiricism offered another distinct attempt to resolve this crisis.

Rationalism and Empiricism: Divergent Paths

Turning to science, Galileo Galilei significantly emphasized the scientific method. To some extent, the hypothetical-deductive method, evolving from both deductive and inductive approaches, was a creation attributed to Galileo. Following the deductive method, one could align with deductive

Kantian Concepts: A Priori, Freedom, and Ethics

A Priori and A Posteriori in Kant's Philosophy

The concept of a posteriori is not limited to the issue of knowledge; it is also present in Kant's ethics. In general, a priori is defined as that which does not originate from, or is mediated by, immediate experience. Conversely, a posteriori is that which has an empirical origin, lying in experience and ultimately in perception.

The Concept of Freedom

Theoretical reason cannot prove the existence of freedom. It is only able to grasp the phenomenal world, a world in which everything is subject to the law of causality, and therefore where everything happens by natural necessity.

Practical Reason and Moral Experience

However, from the perspective of practical... Continue reading "Kant's Ethical Framework: Freedom, Reason, and Heteronomy" »

Empiricism

What is Empiricism?

Empiricism, as a philosophical current, developed during the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "empiricism" signifies that experience is the essential source of knowledge.

British empiricism stands in contrast to continental rationalism. These are two opposing ways of understanding philosophical activity that persist to this day.

Both share certain characteristics, and empiricism is an heir to rationalist philosophy. Above all, they have in common that we do not know things directly, but rather our knowledge of these things is driven by ideas. The primacy of subjectivity or consciousness is a feature of all modern philosophy, whether rationalist or empiricist.

They differ with respect to the origin of those ideas.... Continue reading "Empiricism and Kantian Ideas: Understanding Knowledge" »

Descartes' Arguments for God's Existence

The Causal Argument for God's Existence

This argument rests on two foundational principles:

1. The theory of the objective reality of ideas, which refers to their representative content.
2. The principle that "nothing comes from nothing," asserting that everything has a cause and a consequence.

The objective reality of an idea must have a real cause proportional to that idea. The idea of an infinite being cannot be caused by a finite being; therefore, its existence is inferred.

God as the Cause of My Being

This argument, also rooted in the theory of objective and formal ideas, posits the following: Within my mind, there exists an idea of perfection. If I were the cause of the objective reality of this idea of perfection,... Continue reading "Descartes' Proofs for God's Existence and Divine Truth" »

Core Concepts of Scientific Research

The Scientific Method involves compliance with rules and steps that guide the process of carrying out an investigation.

Key Definitions

• Scientific Research: A systematic and orderly search utilizing tools, specialized instruments, and procedures within an area of knowledge to find potential objective responses to a problem.
• Research: A process that, by applying the scientific method, attempts to obtain relevant and reliable information to understand, verify, correct, or apply knowledge.

Types of Research (By Purpose or Goal)

• Basic or Theoretical Research: Knowledge occurs when it is conducted without the intention of immediate application, but serves as the foundation. Its fundamental interest is to generate knowledge

Saint Thomas Aquinas indicates the main ideas of the argument showing the need for salvation theology. God, so that man goes and therefore should know, cannot be understood only by reason. In addition, disclosure is needed. Only with the right, the truth of God would be known by very few and with many errors. Instead, disclosure provides knowledge that is always true. In addition to philosophy, the science of reason, sacred doctrine or theology is needed, the science of revelation. Explain: According to Thomas Aquinas, so we can be saved, human reason and philosophy are not enough. Moreover, revelation is essential. Faith and reason are different sources of knowledge. Rational knowledge of sensory experience is limited by what we can deduce... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas on Salvation: Faith and Reason" »

Contractarian Theories: A Comparison

Classic contractarian theories share these elements:

1. The state of nature is the starting point: Imagine humanity without political organization.
2. The social contract is a necessary artifice: Ideal situations are unattainable, so civil society must be built from an artificial contract between individuals.
3. The political system is founded on the legitimacy of the contract: The rules of the social contract shape the resulting state.

Hobbes: The Contract of Submission

1. In the natural state, humans tend to satisfy their own desires, using reason to achieve their ends. This leads to a state of war of all against all, which is unsustainable.
2. The contract obliges individuals (now subjects) to give all freedoms to a sovereign

Aristotle's First Philosophy

The Study of Being

According to Aristotle's Metaphysics, all entities share something in common: being. Aristotle seeks knowledge that investigates ideas and principles valid for all types of entities, which he calls 'first philosophy'. The principles of being are present in all types of entities. These principles are not something sensible but are understood by precise reason.

Substance in Metaphysics

Defining Substance

The principle of substance is that which underlies an entity, ensuring it remains that specific being. Substance is always individual and not transferable. Substance is being, vital and fundamental. All that can be said of any entity must relate to its substance.

Types of Substance

Aristotle distinguishes... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics: Being, Substance, Causes" »

Mill's Utilitarianism: A Critical Analysis

Instead, I think J. Stuart Mill could not cope with these other considerations:

1. Holding a conception of human nature – to argue that individuals properly educated generally desire happiness – and the historical process – which he said must lead, by the constant progress of the human spirit, the moral development of individuals – that transcends the empirical – not all individuals developed morally, at least in appearance, seeking to conform their conduct to the moral criterion of general happiness and although there are individuals who, in truth, to present the moral, like him, yes they do, we can not make it a general rule – and condemns his moral criterion for the overall utility or happiness