Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's Superman

The Dionysian Influence

The Dionysian excess and tragic longing permeates Nietzsche's view of humanity. As he states in Beyond Good and Evil, "Man must be educated for war, and woman for the rest of the warrior. All else is madness." Nietzsche's anthropological reflection, while varied, consistently distinguishes between ordinary individuals and great individuals.

Free Spirits vs. Supermen

In Human, All Too Human, Nietzsche refers to distinguished individuals as "free spirits." These individuals are detached and adaptable, capable of embracing new perspectives and actions. They stand in contrast to "free thinkers," the Enlightenment figures of the 18th century who fought against the feudal regime and advocated for egalitarianism.... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Superman: A Philosophical Examination" »

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The utopia of the ideal state in Plato's Republic introduces valuable principles, some of which seem lost today:

• The rule of reason
• Concern for the public good to ensure responsible governance, not interested in personal use of the position (a stance against corruption seen in other political systems)
• The importance of education for both rulers and citizens
• Government involvement in the happiness of citizens
• The equality of women relative to men

However, we also find reprehensible aspects, taking into account the risks of this totalitarian system. If everything is driven by power, such as private property and the family (spouse and children), and considering issues of interest in the educational program, we seem to be overriding... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Reason, Governance, and the Ideal State" »

Philosophical Concepts

Observational Consequences

Consequences derived from a general law, which may not be universally agreed upon by all observers.

Practical Philosophy

The branch of philosophy that reflects on human action.

Socialization

The process through which individuals learn and prepare to live according to social norms.

Freedom

The state of an act not being dictated by an external entity or individual.

Disclaimer

Providing a rationale for an act or event as its author.

Institution

A human group organization recognized by law and custom.

Device

A small-scale institution where specific types of subjectivity are created through practical actions and discourse.

Subject

A being capable of maintaining a relationship with the external world.

Moral

Derived... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Philosophy and Social Sciences" »

The Shift from Renaissance to Baroque

Don Quixote embodies the transition from the optimism of the Renaissance to the disillusionment of the Baroque. In the first part of the novel, he is optimistic. However, in the second part, following experiences like the Cave of Montesinos and facing disappointment, he becomes more pessimistic, ultimately repudiating his chivalric ideals.

The Baroque Era: A Time of Disenchantment

The Baroque period reflects a sense of disappointment following the Renaissance's optimism.

Structure and Narrative

The novel's structure is accumulative (adventure + adventure). However, due to its length, there's a shift in the first part: Don Quixote initially journeys alone, but later travels with Sancho Panza, enriching the narrative... Continue reading "Don Quixote: From Renaissance Optimism to Baroque Disillusionment" »

Empirical Science

Those that focus on the study of observable facts and are verified by experience.

Formal Sciences

Studying abstract objects and ideals that are the product of the human mind and not found in nature. To check their claims, they do not rely on experience but on logic and coherence.

Scientific Law

Describes how a phenomenon will happen, or is likely to happen, under certain conditions.

Theory

The core of science, as research stems from theories, dictating how observation and data collection are conducted, and enabling explanation and prediction.

Consistency

The ability to explain statements without them contradicting each other.

System

A set where elements are interrelated and interact.

Deductive Method

One that proceeds from the general... Continue reading "Key Scientific Concepts Defined" »

What is Knowledge?

Knowledge is justified true belief. To apply the theoretical rationale, the knowledge obtained has the following features:

• Knowledge implies conviction. States of doubt or ignorance do not correspond to those of knowledge. Knowledge requires certainty that ensures safety and having good reason to believe something.
• Knowledge is a belief.
• Knowledge is true. If we believe in something that is false, it cannot be ascertained.
• Knowledge is justified. A belief held without good reasons cannot be considered knowledge.

Attitudes Towards Knowledge

• Ignorance: When it is unknown whether a statement is true or false.
• Doubt: If one is not totally convinced of something.
• Conviction: When one is certain of something.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking... Continue reading "Understanding Knowledge and Rationality" »

Nietzsche's Critique of Christianity and the Death of God

This critique extends beyond superficial reflections. It focuses on four key points:

• Christianity is a series of principles, contradictions, and errors.
• It contributes to a false hope in the beyond, causing contempt for the world.
• Many followers of Christianity are inconsistent with their ideas and practices.

Nietzsche on Nihilism and the Will to Power

Nietzsche's concept of nihilism involves several aspects:

• It suppresses values that allow life to be free.
• It sets the stage for the Übermensch (Superman).
• The concept of Eternal Recurrence: Not merely a cosmological idea of factual repetition, but a defense of a determined future, achievable by few.
• It critiques restrictive moral rules that limit

Descartes' Concept of Substance

Descartes identified the first element of reality in the self as a thinking substance. He conceived clearly and distinctly that the 'I' did not need other things to exist, thus establishing his concept of substance. The self is real, and what is real is substance. Thinking substance is the primary substance identified, distinct from Aristotle's concept of substance as a substrate for attributes; for Descartes, it is a kind of substance conceived by reason.

Alongside thinking substances, Descartes posits God, identified through the attribute of infinity as the infinite substance. The definition of substance in its purest form belongs to God, for God alone needs no other thing to exist; God exists in Himself and... Continue reading "Descartes: Substance, Extension, and the Mechanistic World" »

Historical and Sociocultural Context of the Enlightenment in Germany

Kant, one of the most important figures of the 18th century, along with the American and French Revolutions, defined the Enlightenment as the mental attitude by which man decides to leave his self-imposed immaturity, using his reason without the guidance of another. The Encyclopedia was a key work of this period.

The German Enlightenment

The German Enlightenment had its peculiarities. There was an increase in population and a relative improvement in the economy (higher agricultural yields and the inception of industry). Germany was divided into small states with an almost feudal structure (nobility, bourgeoisie, peasants).

The state of Prussia stood out. After economic and... Continue reading "German Enlightenment: History, Society, and Philosophy" »