Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems

Core OOP Definitions

Class and Object

• Class: A user-defined data structure that binds data members and operations (methods) into a single unit.
• Object: An instance of a class. Objects are used to perform actions or allow interactions based on the class definition.

Variables and Attributes

• Method: An action performed using the object's attributes.
• Attributes: Characteristics or properties of a class. Also known as instance variables (declared outside methods, belonging to one object). They are accessible through static and public methods.
• Class Variable: Declared using the static keyword; shared among all objects of the class.
• Local Variables: Declared inside methods, constructors, or blocks; they exist only while the method runs. They cannot be accessed

1. Nature and Scope of Accounting

Nature of Accounting

• Systematic Process: Identifying, recording, classifying, summarizing, and interpreting business transactions.
• Historical in Nature: Primarily records past events.
• Quantitative: Deals mostly with financial/monetary information.
• Dual Aspect: Based on the double-entry system (debit equals credit).
• Communication Tool: Provides information to stakeholders.

Scope of Accounting

• Financial Accounting: Recording and reporting of transactions (Profit & Loss, Balance Sheet).
• Cost Accounting: Ascertainment of cost, cost control, and decision-making.
• Management Accounting: Provides financial and non-financial information for planning and control.
• Tax Accounting: Deals with income tax, GST, and compliance.
• Auditing:

The Mechanism of Photosynthesis and Energy Conversion

Photosynthesis (pronounced FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis)^[1] is a system of biological processes by which photopigment-bearing autotrophic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy—typically from sunlight—into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabolism. The term photosynthesis usually refers to oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that releases oxygen as a byproduct of water splitting.

Storing Chemical Energy and Maintaining the Atmosphere

Photosynthetic organisms store the converted chemical energy within the bonds of intracellular organic compounds (complex compounds containing carbon), typically carbohydrates like:

• Sugars (mainly glucose, fructose,

Cellular and Genetic Foundations

• Cells: The fundamental unit of life.
• Prokaryotes: Lack a nucleus; typically single-celled organisms.
• Eukaryotes: Possess a nucleus and organelles; can be multi- or single-celled.

Genetics is the study of heredity. DNA structure was revealed in 1953, based on the work of Rosalind Franklin.

• DNA: A double helix structure composed of four bases (Adenine–Thymine, Cytosine–Guanine).
• DNA organizes sequentially into histones, forming chromatin, which condenses into chromosomes (humans have 23 pairs).

DNA Replication and Mutational Forces

• Replication Process: Involves initiation (using helicase), elongation (using polymerase), and termination.
• Mutations: Errors during replication are the only source of new genetic variation.

Network Switches

Managed vs. Unmanaged Switches

Managed Switch: Configurable via software, supports security and communication settings. Used in large networks (enterprise, universities).

Unmanaged Switch: Fixed configuration, hardware-only, cannot be configured.

Ethernet & Speed

1. Fast Ethernet: 100 Mbps.
2. Gigabit Ethernet: 1 Gbps.

Ethernet Protocol

Divides data into frames, encapsulates IP addresses, performs error detection.

Ports

3. Console Port: Connects PC/laptop to configure switch.

Communication Modes

• Simplex (Half Duplex): One-way communication at a time.
• Duplex (Full Duplex): Two-way communication simultaneously.

Bandwidth

5. Maximum transmission speed of a network, determined by signal frequency range.

IP Addressing & Subnets

6. IP Address: Identifies

Demineralization of Brackish Water by Electrodialysis

This detailed explanation covers the process of demineralization of brackish water using Electrodialysis (ED), based on standard water chemistry concepts.

Brackish Water Characteristics

Brackish water contains dissolved salts, with salinity levels higher than freshwater but lower than seawater. It tastes salty and is generally unsuitable for drinking or industrial use. To make it potable, salts must be removed (desalination).

Electrodialysis Principle

Electrodialysis is an electrochemical desalination process. When an electric field is applied, ions (salts) in the water migrate through specialized ion-selective membranes:

• Cation-exchange membranes: Allow only cations (e.g., Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺)

Understanding the Term "Inter Galvanic Current"

The term Inter galvanic current is not standard or widely recognized in medical, scientific, or engineering contexts. It likely refers to one of the following concepts, based on how the term might be interpreted:

1. Galvanic Current in Electrotherapy and Cosmetology

Galvanic current is a Direct Current (DC) used primarily in medical and cosmetic treatments, particularly in electrotherapy. It is continuous, unidirectional, and typically used to:

• Stimulate blood circulation.
• Promote tissue healing.
• Perform iontophoresis (driving medications or ions through the skin).
• Treat muscle atrophy or improve muscle tone.
• Used in facial treatments for deep cleansing (desincrustation) and product penetration (iontophoresis)

A bed sore, also known as a pressure ulcer or decubitus ulcer, is an area of damaged skin and tissue that develops when prolonged pressure cuts off circulation to particular parts of the body, especially over bony areas. Without enough blood flow, the affected tissue dies. Understanding the causes, prevention, and management of these injuries is crucial for patient care.

Definition of Pressure Ulcers

A bed sore is a localized injury to the skin and/or underlying tissue, usually over a bony prominence, as a result of prolonged pressure, or pressure in combination with shear.

Common Sites for Pressure Ulcer Development

• Sacrum (lower back)
• Heels
• Hips
• Elbows
• Ankles
• Back of the head
• Shoulder blades

Stages of Bed Sores (Pressure Ulcers)

1. Stage 1: Red, unbroken

✅ Control of Haemorrhage (Bleeding)

Controlling haemorrhage involves stopping the bleeding, maintaining circulation, and preventing shock. The approach depends on the type and severity of the bleeding.

Types of Haemorrhage

1. External Haemorrhage: Visible bleeding from a wound.
2. Internal Haemorrhage: Bleeding inside the body.
3. Arterial Bleeding: Bright red, spurting blood.
4. Venous Bleeding: Dark red, steady flow of blood.
5. Capillary Bleeding: Oozing blood from capillaries.

Methods for Controlling Haemorrhage

Immediate Measures (First Aid)

• Direct Pressure: Apply firm pressure directly on the wound with a clean cloth or dressing.
• Elevation: Elevate the bleeding part above the heart level, if no fracture is suspected.
• Immobilization: Keep the injured part still

Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation Essentials

Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (PM&R), also known as physiatry, is a medical specialty dedicated to enhancing and restoring functional ability, independence, and quality of life for individuals with physical impairments or disabilities. It adopts a holistic approach, focusing on the whole person rather than solely on the disease, by integrating medical treatment with physical, psychological, and social rehabilitation strategies.

Historical Roots of PM&R

PM&R began developing as a distinct specialty in the early 20th century. It gained prominence during and after World War I and II, when large numbers of injured soldiers required systematic rehabilitation to return to society.... Continue reading "Restoring Function: PM&R, Neuromuscular & Arthritis Care" »