Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems

The Problem of Induction

Inductive reasoning goes from the particular to the general, from the observed to the unobserved.

Practical Problems

• How many observations are enough?
• Even well-confirmed hypotheses can later turn out to be wrong.
• Most scientists believe they really are discovering the fundamental laws of the universe, yet we have observed only a minute fraction of the universe.

Theoretical Problem

Science is supposed to be an empirical discipline that makes no claims beyond what is observed. However, this would stop any hypothesis from going from the particular to the general.

Key Thinkers and Scientific Method

Karl Popper (1902-94)

Rejected theories that tried to explain everything.

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

Believed that human beings are dominated... Continue reading "The Problem of Induction in Science" »

Key Concepts in Engineering Economics

Engineering Economics is the science dealing with quantitative analysis techniques for selecting the most preferable alternative from several technically viable options.

Fundamental Principles

Four fundamental principles must be applied in all engineering economic decisions:

• The time value of money
• Differential (or incremental) cost and revenue
• Marginal cost and revenue
• The trade-off between risk and reward

Core Terminology Explained

Ethics

A set of principles that guides a decision-maker in distinguishing between right and wrong.

Market Interest Rate

The interest rate quoted by financial institutions, which refers to the cost of money for borrowers or the earnings from money for lenders.

Interest Rate

The cost, or price,

Benefits of Computers in Education

Enhanced Learning Experience

• Interactive Learning and Visualization: Computers make learning more interactive. For instance, a physics teacher can demonstrate complex concepts like nuclear fission using simulations on a computer and an LCD projector, allowing students to visualize experiments that are too dangerous to conduct in a school lab. This enables a deeper understanding.
• Personalized Learning and Curiosity: The use of computers matches learner development needs with personal interests. Students, inherently curious, are always seeking new information to stimulate their brains. Computers make learning more real and engaging by providing access to a vast array of resources.

Information Accessibility and Storage

• Vast

117 Ways to Pass the Earth Science Regents

1. The same substance always has the same density.

2. As pressure increases, density increases.

3. As temperature increases, density decreases.

4. Water expands when it freezes.

5. Most changes are cyclic.

6. Water is most dense at 4^oC, when it is a liquid.

7. The true shape of the Earth is an oblate spheroid, but from space it looks like a sphere.

44. As temperature increases, air pressure decreases.

45. As moisture increases, pressure decreases.

46. Air pressure decreases with altitude.

47. Highs are cool and dry; lows are warm and wet.

48. Wind is due to air pressure differences.

49. Wind blows from high to low pressure.

50. Wind is named from the direction that it is coming from.

51. The accepted value is the... Continue reading "Earth Science Regents: 117 Key Concepts" »

Psalm 73: Faith, Envy, and the End of the Wicked

Book III of Psalms

A Psalm by Asaph (World English Bible Translation)

1 Surely God^[a] is good to Israel, to those who are pure in heart.

2 But as for me, my feet were almost gone; my steps had nearly slipped. 3 For I was envious of the arrogant, when I saw the prosperity of the wicked.

4 For there are no struggles in their death, but their strength is firm. 5 They are free from the burdens of men, neither are they plagued like other men. 6 Therefore pride is like a chain around their neck; violence covers them like a garment.

7 Their eyes bulge with fat; their minds pass the limits of conceit. 8 They scoff and speak with malice. In arrogance, they threaten oppression. 9 They have set their mouth... Continue reading "Psalm 73: Finding Strength When the Wicked Prosper" »

Vladimir: The Rational Mind in Crisis

Vladimir represents the rational part of the duo, the mind; however, despite this, he is unable to react and remains powerless. Unlike Estragon, he is more intelligent and is the one who looks after Estragon's physical well-being. He raises philosophical questions but never achieves an answer. His suffering is purely intellectual; an example of this is seen when he fails to understand why Pozzo keeps Lucky as a slave. We can observe Descartes' influence in this character through the lens of "I think, therefore I am."

Pozzo and Lucky: Power and Class Dynamics

Pozzo and Lucky may represent a capitalist-working class relationship; the former enslaves Lucky and gives him leftovers. Paradoxically, despite being... Continue reading "Existentialism and Symbolism in Waiting for Godot" »

British Poetry: 1950s-1970s

This analysis summarizes and discusses the main characteristics of British poetry between the 1950s and the 1970s, with specific reference to the works of Philip Larkin, Ted Hughes, and Seamus Heaney.

A Shift in English Literature

There was a significant shift in English literature during this period, with writers largely avoiding romanticism and modernism. Instead, they focused on writing realistic poetry and novels. Meanwhile, playwrights adopted a more philosophical point of view.

Post-War Dreams and Disappointments

In the aftermath of World War II, a dream for the future emerged, encompassing improved health services, education, and welfare systems. Universities like Oxford, Cambridge, and St. Andrews were no longer... Continue reading "British Poetry: 1950s-1970s - Larkin, Hughes, and Heaney" »

The Significance of April 4, 1984 in Orwell's Novel

By a strange coincidence, the first chapter of George Orwell's famous dystopian novel, 1984, begins on April 4, 1984. On this day, the hero, Winston Smith, takes the first seditious step toward independence from externally imposed structures of meaning: he starts writing a diary. When Winston begins the diary, he writes the date: April 4, 1984.

Winston Smith's Diary: An Act of Rebellion

This attempt to find his own voice symbolizes the hope of liberation, the cleansing of consciousness from imposed ideas, and the movement towards a goal, however hopeless it may seem.

The Search for Truth and Freedom

He wrote:

"Freedom is the right to say that two plus two make four. If that is granted, all else

Business Accounting Fundamentals

Accounts are the financial records of a firm’s transactions.

Accountants are the professionally qualified people who have the responsibility for keeping accurate accounts and for producing the final accounts.

Final accounts are produced at the end of the financial year and give details of the profit or loss made over the year and the worth of the business.

Methods of Making Payment

1. Cash: The traditional method of payment which is still widely used for small amounts.
2. Cheque: Cheques are not money; they are instructions to a bank to transfer a specified sum in the form of a bank balance to a named person.
3. Credit Card: This allows the consumer to obtain goods and services now but to pay for them in the future.
4. Debit

Heritage Tourism Management

Definition and Management Plan

Management is a process businesses undertake to achieve organizational performance. In order to achieve this goal, a plan called a ‘management plan’ has to be proposed. However, even the best management plan has to have a legal framework and certain tools must exist:

• Administrative
• Financial
• Conservation
• Social

Setting short and long-term strategies for the protection and enhancement of the cultural heritage leads to specific plans and elements, among which should be:

• Boundary Survey and Description
• Land Use Plan
• Conservation
• Utilities and Services Plan
• Community Development Plan
• Tourism Plan

Such a plan of action would help to preserve the sites for future generations. It would also help to... Continue reading "Effective Heritage Tourism Management: Strategies & Planning" »