Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems

Minerals and Alloy Fundamentals

Minerals: A usable part is formed by the metal and rich-looking material, named the ore, and another not usable part because it is very poor in metal, called the gangue (bargain).

Alloys: A product obtained from the union of two or more chemical elements which presents the characteristics of a metal. An alloy modifies its crystalline structure, increasing its hardness and mechanical resistance but lowering its conductivity.

Solidification of Alloys

• Area liquid phase: Liquidus line for liquid (it will always be liquid).
• Area solid + liquid phase: Contains a mass of solid and another of liquid.
• Solid-phase area: Below the solidus line (always a solid phase).

Classification of Metal Products

Shop-metal products:

• Ferrous

Introduction to Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions are chemical phenomena that cause a modification of the internal molecular structure. Examples include the oxidation of iron and the degradation of food.

Energy in Chemical Processes

Synthesis reactions (manufacture) or anabolic processes are endothermic reactions; for example, photosynthesis and lipid synthesis. Conversely, exothermic reactions involve catabolism (not synthesis), such as cellular respiration and fermentation.

Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration

The chemical equation for cellular respiration with oxygen is: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O.

Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction

• Temperature: With increasing temperature, chemical reactions occur with more numerous shocks (

1989 Constitutional Amendments and Institutional Changes

• Institutionalization of Power: Following the death of the Ayatollah, the informal practices he established were institutionalized.
• The Expediency Council: This body was institutionalized to resolve conflicts between liberals and conservatives. While it existed previously, its role was expanded and formalized.
• Assembly of Religious Experts: The amendments also expanded the number of members in the Assembly of Religious Experts.

Impact of Oil Dependence on the Iranian State

• The Rentier State: Iran receives sufficient revenue from oil to disregard its internal tax base. This causes the Iranian state to become independent of society; since there is little taxation, there is little public representation

Vacation and Leave Entitlements

• Vacation Days: A staff member with a 25-year career is entitled to 25 vacation days.
• Birth of a Child: Officials are entitled to 15 days off from the date of birth.
• Parental Leave: Officials with a newborn child may benefit from both paternity and maternity leave.

Remuneration and Pensions

• Extra Pay: Defined as basic remuneration.
• Basic Pay Determination: In the Central Government, this is determined by the Law of State Budget.
• Pension Rights: Pension rights are unalienable and cannot be seized.
• Retirement Accrual: Retirement pensions begin to accrue from the first day of the month of retirement.
• Pension Classes: Pensions are classified as ordinary or extraordinary.

Disciplinary and Legal Procedures

• Serious Offenses: Dismissal

Chemical Kinetics and Reaction Rates

Factors Influencing Reaction Velocity

• Rate Equation: V = k · [A]^a · [B]^b
• Temperature: The Arrhenius Law: k = k₀ · e^{-E_a / (R · T)}
• Concentration and Pressure: P · V = n · R · T
  P = (n · R · T) / V → n / V = concentration
  P = [X] · R · T
• Standard State and Physical State:
  • Solid: Few collisions result in slow reactions. The level of division is key; more particles mean a greater impact surface.
  • Liquid: Average collision frequency results in average reaction speeds.
  • Gas: Many collisions result in faster reactions.
• Catalysts: Positive catalysts increase speed. Negative catalysts (inhibitors) slow it down. Catalysts do not change thermochemical quantities (ΔH, ΔG, ΔS...), the quantity of product, or

English Grammar Practice Exercises

Improve your language skills with these exercises covering conditionals, passive voice, and complex verb tenses.

Conditionals and Sentence Matching

Match the columns:

• He'll call us as soon as...
• Answers: 1b, 2f, 3c, 4a, 5d, 6e

Verb Tense Completion

Complete the sentences using the verbs in parentheses:

• I would return the book...
• Answers: Would return / knew; Had offered / would have accepted; Doesn't train / won't win

Sentence Transformation and Meaning

Complete the sentences so that the meaning remains the same:

• I don't think you should buy that car. → I wouldn't buy that car.
• I would have been exhausted if I hadn't stayed up all night.
• If I hadn't reminded him, Sam would have forgotten about the meeting.
• If I were old

Fundamental Electrical Units

• Current: Ampere (A)
• Voltage: Volt (V)
• Resistance: Ohm (Ω)
• Power: Watt (W)
• Charge: Coulomb (C)

Metric Prefixes

• peta (P): 10^15
• tera (T): 10^12
• giga (G): 10^9
• mega (M): 10^6
• kilo (k): 10^3
• milli (m): 10^-3
• micro (µ): 10^-6
• nano (n): 10^-9
• pico (p): 10^-12
• femto (f): 10^-15

Significant Figures and Math

• Non-zero: Significant
• Leading zeros: Not significant
• Middle zeros: Significant
• Trailing decimals: Significant
• Addition/Subtraction: Match decimal places
• Multiplication/Division: Match significant figures

Core Electrical Concepts

When electrons move, they create current. Current is defined as I = Q/t, and voltage is V = W/Q.

Q represents coulombs (electrical charge). One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule of energy... Continue reading "Electrical Engineering Fundamentals: Circuits and Components" »

Journalistic Texts and News Structure

Classification of Journalistic Genres

• Informational: Interview, news, and reportage.
• Opinion: Editorial and article.
• Background.

The Anatomy of News

The news consists of a holder (headline), entry, and body. The holder may be accompanied by an antetitulo and subtitle, and should achieve a conative function through concision and wit. When the news is long, there may be intermediate holders. The entry is a brief summary of the news, often highlighted in bold or italics.

The Inverted Pyramid and Page Hierarchy

The body develops the introduction following an inverted pyramid structure, ordered according to importance. For a journalist, the hierarchy of importance is as follows:

• The 1st page is the most important.
• The

Determining the Legal Form of a Company

7.1. Determination of the legal form of a company. Companies may take different legal forms according to their size, the amount of initial capital, the number of partners, and the activity the company will pursue. The most common legal forms are:

Common Legal Structures

Legally:

• Sole proprietorship.
• Community property.

With legal personality:

• General partnership.
• Limited partnership.
• Limited liability: Limited Partnership and New Business Limited Company.
• Public Limited Company.
• Limited partnership by shares.
• Worker-owned companies: Limited work partnership and labor limited company.
• Cooperative Society.

Legal Forms and Main Characteristics

Individual Entrepreneur

An individual entrepreneur is a natural person who regularly... Continue reading "Business Legal Structures and Pricing Strategies" »

Famous Scottish People

Choose the best answer:

• 11. Shakespeare wrote about the Scottish king Macbeth.
• 12. Robert Adam learnt about buildings in Rome.
• 13. David Hume went to university when he was twelve years old.
• 14. Robert Burns wrote beautiful poems.
• 15. James Watt began a business and made hundreds of steam engines.
• 16. Arthur Conan Doyle wrote stories about a detective called Sherlock Holmes.
• 17. In the 1880s, Andrew Carnegie became the richest man in the world.
• 18. Charles Rennie Mackintosh made many important buildings in Glasgow.
• 19. In 1962, Sean Connery was James Bond in a film.
• 20. Queen Elizabeth stays in Edinburgh Castle every summer.

Scottish Facts

Choose the best answer:

• 21. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.
• 22. Scotland has about 800 islands.