Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Music

The Writing of Music

Greek and Roman music was alphabetic, assigning each sound a letter of the alphabet. In the 9th century, this type of notation was changed to neumatic notation. The neumes are signs that are placed on syllables, singing and trying to draw the melodic line. Inadvertently, they indicate exact length but serve only as a reminder. The singers devoted many years to memorizing all the melodies.

In the 10th century, the monk Hucbald had the idea of drawing parallel horizontal lines that corresponded to a different pitch. Another monk the following century, Guido d'Arezzo (995-1050), decided to use the lines as well as spaces. Guido d'Arezzo also gave each note the name you know currently. In the 13th century, a first proportional... Continue reading "Medieval Music History: Gregorian Chant to Polyphony" »

A Precursor: Henricus Glareanus

Henricus Glareanus appears in the Cinquecento among the early humanist theorists. Glareanus—an important theoretical writer, poet, and scholar—authored the musical treatise Dodecachordon. His treatise is an attempt to reconcile medieval theory with practical performance and to replace the exclusive authority of Guido of Arezzo. Glareanus addresses the nature and superiority of music and exact tuning, the utilization of ideas from the Camerata of Bardi, and the creation of melodrama accompanied by monody.

Zarlino: The New Concept of Harmony

Gioseffo Zarlino argued for the need to develop a conception of music consistent with audible reality in a changing historical moment. He emphasized harmonic institutions... Continue reading "Renaissance Music Theory, Instruments and Performance" »

Spanish Literary Periods and Key Authors

Golden Age (Siglo de Oro)

• Garcilaso de la Vega
• Santa Teresa de Jesús
• Fray Luis de León
• San Juan de la Cruz
• Luis de Góngora
• Lope de Vega
• Francisco de Quevedo

Romanticism

• José de Espronceda
• Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
• Rosalía de Castro

Modernism

• Rubén Darío
• Antonio Machado
• Juan Ramón Jiménez

Generation of '27

The Generation of '27 was a group of Spanish poets who gathered in that year to commemorate the death of the Baroque poet Luis de Góngora.

• Vicente Aleixandre
• Jorge Guillén
• Luis Cernuda
• Gerardo Diego
• Rafael Alberti
• Federico García Lorca
• Miguel Hernández

Contemporary Poetry

• Blas de Otero
• Gabriel Celaya
• Pablo Neruda

Essential Poetic and Rhetorical Devices

Phonic Resources

• Alliteration: Repetition of one or more sounds to imitate

Fundamental Literary Features

1. The Poetic Function

   The author uses language not merely to convey information, but to convert the message into an artistic object.

2. The Artistic Innovator

   The writer is forced to continually explore the expressive possibilities of language.

3. The Process of Derealization

   Although often very realistic, the literary work never reflects the external world exactly. Instead, it decomposes and rebuilds reality in its own way.

4. Connotation and Plurisignification

   Terms do not denote objective reality but become carriers of affective and volitional elements. Plurisignification is the acquisition of new meanings for words within a given context.

5. Recurrent Structure

   The literary work tends to be organized according to structures that are

Musical Genres of the Classical Period

Musical genres: For the Classical period there was encouragement for public concerts and private salons. The simplification of harmony and the pursuit of functional balance are reflected in the most important instrumental genres in music history: the sonata, symphony and concerto.

The Sonata

The sonata is a composition for one or two instruments. Sonatas were developed in three or four different movements differentiated by tempo. The first movement typically uses sonata form, which contains two contrasting themes and a development section that transforms and combines those themes.

The Symphony

The symphony is a composition for orchestra; its first movement often follows the pattern of sonata form. Historically,... Continue reading "Classical Music Genres: Sonata, Symphony, Concerto & Cadence" »

The Origins of Christian Music

Music is as much an art form as it is a means of addressing God. Christianity did not invent new music; it accepted the songs already sung by the people. The music arose from the confluence of traditions in the towns where Christianity emerged:

• Greco-Roman tradition
• Jewish tradition

Characteristics of Gregorian Chant

Gregorian Chant possesses distinct features:

• It is not accompanied by instruments.
• All participants sing the same melody (monophony).
• It uses a free rhythm, meaning it lacks a strict measure or beat.
• It is sung in Latin.
• The text is intrinsically linked to the religious message it seeks to express.

Types of Gregorian Chant

Chants are classified based on the number of notes per syllable:

• Syllabic: One note per

Instrumental Music in the Middle Ages

Instrumental music begins to develop its own identity alongside dance in the Middle Ages. In the early years, instrumental music was viewed with suspicion by the Churches because it was often used in pagan cults.

Instruments were used to call villagers to harvest, for war, hunting, and processions. Over time, horn instruments reached Europe from Asia via two main routes: Byzantium and Spain.

Instrumental music was not formally written down until the arrival of the Renaissance. The dance practices of the era help us discover the original instrumental music.

Medieval Musical Instruments

Instruments were generally categorized by type:

• String: Harp, rebec (or rabe)
• Wind: Flageolet, flute
• Percussion: Drum (or tambourine)

Music and Speech Apparatus

Air Suppliers (Lungs)

These cause inspiration (air collects via dilator muscles of the diaphragm and intercostals) and expiration (expels air, muscles relax). Breathing is the sum of these two moments.

Classes of Breathing

• Costal (upper chest)
• Diaphragmatic (the most importante for singing)

Sound Producers

The vocal folds. The height of the sound depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords.

Vocal Repertoire Examples (Lyrics)

Song: "I Will Love You"

• Songwriter: Dolly Parton
• Century: XX
• Style: Pop
• Tempo: Andante
• Rhythm: Binary (4/4 time signature)
• Features: Mezzo-soprano voice

Zarzuela: Doña Francisquita

• Composer: Amaedo Vives
• Era: Century XX
• Style: Zarzuela
• Rhythm: Ternary
• Tempo: Andante
• Instruments: Tenor
• Characteristics: Alfredo

Spanish Romantic Drama

From the beginning of the seventeenth century, the public preferred Segia. After the limited success of comedies, between 1834 and 1844, the drama became the preferred genre. It rejected the rule of the three unities, blending several actions, times, and places. It became fashionable to use characters and themes from Spain's Golden Age, with tragic love as a central theme. The protagonists are often heroic figures.

Principal Authors

• Francisco Martínez de la Rosa
• Duque of Rivas - Don Álvaro or the Force of Fate
• Antonio García Gutiérrez - The Old Smallpox
• Ventura de la Vega - The Man in the World
• Mariano José de Larra - Macías
• José de Espronceda - Blanca de Borbón
• Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch - The Lovers of Teruel
• José Zorrilla

Renaissance and Baroque: Literature and Culture

Renaissance (16th Century)

The Renaissance was a movement that transformed the cultural life of Europe. It represented a resurgence of Greek and classical Latin culture, shifting from the medieval theological perspective to a new humanist culture.

Characteristics of Humanists

Humanists were men dedicated to the study of the humanities. Key characteristics include:

• Study of classical Greek and Latin languages.
• Enthusiastic appreciation for the world and human knowledge.

Humanist Worldview

• The world is a beautiful place, and life should be enjoyed.
• Man is the center of the world and made to measure (anthropocentrism).
• Human perfection lies in the balanced development of all human potential.

Renaissance Literature

Key... Continue reading "Renaissance and Baroque: Literature and Culture in Europe" »