Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Medicine & Health

Pharmaceutical Research and Drug Development

6.1 Development of Medicines: Stages and Trials

The process of developing new medicines is typically divided into two main stages:

Stage 1: Discovery and Preclinical Trials

• This stage involves searching for substances that exhibit therapeutic activity against a disease while possessing minimal toxicity. This process is known as screening.
• Selected substances are subjected to in vitro tests. The most active candidates then undergo tests on animals to assess their response, efficacy, and safety profile.

Stage 2: Clinical Trials and Drug Safety Testing

The primary goal of this stage is to test the safety and efficacy of drugs in human subjects. It is conducted in four standard phases:

1. Phase I: Reviews safety

1. Basic Emotions

• Joy
• Interest
• Excitement
• Surprise
• Sadness
• Anger
• Disgust
• Contempt
• Fear
• Shame
• Guilt

2. Physiological Responses to Emotions

Emotions trigger physical changes such as an accelerated heart rate, muscle tension, stomach tingling, and dry mouth. These responses provide energy by sending more blood sugar to the liver. Increased oxygen demand leads to a higher heart rate. Digestion slows down as blood is redirected to muscles. Pupils dilate to allow more light, and perspiration increases to cool the body.

3. Detecting Emotions and Lies

While it's difficult to detect lies definitively, physiological responses can indicate emotions. Changes in breathing, pulse pressure, blood flow, and perspiration accompany emotional states.

4. Verbal and Non-Verbal

Abrasives: Reduce to Ashes

INS: Burn, burn up, roast, char.

ANT: Cool, freeze, turn off.

Embrace: Surrounding with Arms

INS: Gird, wrap, shake, host.

ANT: Loose, disengage, release.

Stalk: Watching, Waiting with Caution

INS: Monitor, spy, sight, look.

ANT: Disregard, neglect, forget, ignore.

Creep: Placing Snares, Traps

INS: Ambush, conspiracy, betrayal.

ANT: Reality, existence, authenticity, certitude.

Asar: Cook by Fire or Heat

INS: Scorch, sear, roast, steak.

ANT: Freeze, cool, refrigerate.

Azar: Unforeseen Events

INS: Luck, contingency, serendipity, accident.

ANT: Evidence, certainty, event, fact.

Kill: Deliberately Take Someone's Life

INS: Liquidate, remove, clear, stone.

ANT: Rebirth, cure, revive, relieve.

Acecinos: Salted and Smoked Meats

INS: Seasoning,... Continue reading "Words and Definitions: A Vocabulary Deep Dive" »

Hazard Identification and First Aid

Clearly and briefly describe the main dangers, especially key risks to humans or the environment. Detail dangerous health effects, including symptoms related to foreseeable misuse.

First Aid Procedures

Describe first aid measures, clarifying if immediate medical attention is needed. Information should be brief and easy to understand, focusing on symptoms and effects. Include sections based on routes of exposure:

• Inhalation: Indicate if medical attention is required.
• Skin Contact: Indicate if medical attention is required.
• Eye Contact: Indicate if medical attention is required.
• Ingestion: Indicate if medical attention is required.

For some substances or preparations, emphasize the need for special means to provide... Continue reading "Chemical Safety Data Sheet Essentials" »

Essential Vocabulary

Assortment (collection): A group of similar things (with different sizes, colors, etc.).
Bottom line (in brief): The most important factor to consider.
Commit a crime: To do something illegal or bad.
Crave: To beg or plead for.
Disruptive (problematic): Confusing, disturbing.
Drop (down): To go down.
Enrollment (registration): To record or note in a roll or list.
Imbalance (disequilibrium): The lack of balance.
Inmate (internal): A person confined to an institution such as a prison or hospital.
Lack (lack of): To be deficient in; to have need of.
Level: A horizontal datum line or plane.
Liable (prone): Susceptible or exposed.
Measure: To determine the size, amount, etc., of something.
Nourishing (nutritional): To provide... Continue reading "Essential English Vocabulary and Idioms" »

Understanding Alcoholism

Alcoholism is a disease characterized by a strong need for consuming ethyl alcohol, leading to physical dependence. This dependence is expressed through specific withdrawal symptoms when intake is not possible. Individuals with alcoholism often lose control over consumption limits and typically develop an increased tolerance to alcohol over time.

The Dangers of Tobacco Smoking

Cigarette smoking is an addiction to tobacco, caused primarily by nicotine, its active component, which conditions continued consumption. Smoking is a chronic systemic disease classified within the group of addictions and is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) by the American Psychiatric Association. It is... Continue reading "Addiction and Dependence: Alcohol, Tobacco, and Substances" »

Breastfeeding: Nursing Activities to Promote It

Prenatal Consultation: Education and Misconceptions

LM. Nursing activities to promote it. In the prenatal consultation: Report on its advantages. Clarify misconceptions (e.g., breast deformity or alteration of sexual relations).

Maternity Ward: Initiation of Breastfeeding

In the Maternity Ward: Start early breastfeeding (within 30 minutes of delivery; the newborn has maximum suction capacity). Teach proper positioning and breastfeeding technique.

Teaching Breastfeeding Technique

• Adopt a comfortable position.
• Prepare the nipple: gentle massage if needed.
• The face of the infant should be directly in front of the chest, turned, able to swallow.
• Induce rooting to encourage a good latch.
• Alternate breasts during

Fascioliasis and the Liver Fluke

Fascioliasis is a zoonotic disease caused by a trematode parasite known as the liver fluke. In this cycle, humans and herbivores serve as definitive hosts, while small freshwater snails act as intermediate hosts.

The parasite, better known as Fasciola hepatica (referred to as 'pirihuín' in Chile), is a digenetic fluke. It has the appearance of a lanceolate leaf with a well-defined cephalic cone.

Symptoms and Clinical Picture

The clinical picture is characterized by a hypersensitive state and hepatobiliary symptoms. Symptoms vary by stage:

• Invasion Period: Pain, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), fever, and urticaria.
• State Period: Digestive disorders, pain, jaundice, and fever.

Treatment and Prevention

Treatment: The primary... Continue reading "Common Zoonotic Parasitic Infections and Prevention" »

The Science of Attraction and Chemistry

This article seeks to provide a fun and entertaining vision of chemistry, essentially as simple and wonderful as something that happens to us all at some point in life: love!

Poets have delighted us by singing about the most wonderful feelings from all angles and with infinite shades, but chemists also have things to say about it—perhaps less alluring, but no less important.

The Psychological Blueprint of Love

Why do we fall for a particular person and not another? Numerous psychological investigations demonstrate the decisiveness of childhood memories, both conscious and unconscious. The so-called correspondence theory can be summarized in the phrase: "Everyone is seeking a partner they think they deserve.

Relations Between Work and Health

Work makes the development of society possible by increasing welfare and quality of life; however, it is also likely to involve damaging the health of workers.

Basic Concepts in Occupational Prevention

There are specific characteristics that can influence the occurrence of occupational hazards. Work factors are the specifications of these working conditions.

Understanding Risk and Damage

• The Risk: When a working condition negatively affects health, it is considered a risk factor.
• Damage: Damage occurs when a risk materializes, changing from a possibility to a reality.

Prevention and Protection Against Risks

The prevention of occupational hazards is the set of activities or measures implemented in all phases of business... Continue reading "Occupational Health and Safety Prevention Strategies" »