Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Medicine & Health

Nouns: From Old English to Middle English

Gender Evolution in Nouns

The shift from grammatical gender, as in Old English (OE), to natural gender was a significant change. OE had three genders (feminine, masculine, neuter). In Middle English (ME), there was a reclassification of originally masculine and feminine inanimate nouns as neuter.

Plural Markers and Inflectional Changes

• -as: A strong masculine noun ending in OE, which developed into the Present Day English (PDE) -s plural marker.
• -an: A weak noun ending in OE, which developed into the PDE -en plural marker (e.g., oxen).
• R-plurals: Developed into two markers: -en and -r.
• O/E Vowel Umlaut: A process of vowel change in the root.

In ME, five main plural markers emerged: zero, root vowel change (... Continue reading "English Grammar Evolution: Old to Middle English Transformations" »

Respiratory System Basics

Respiratory Key Terms

• Dyspnea: Difficulty breathing
• Orthopnea: Difficulty breathing when lying flat
• Tachypnea: Abnormally fast breathing
• Bradypnea: Abnormally slow breathing
• Hemoptysis: Coughing up blood
• Hypoxia: Tissue oxygen deficiency
• Clubbing: Fingertip rounding due to chronic hypoxia
• Barrel chest: Increased chest diameter often from emphysema
• Cyanosis: Bluish skin or mucous membrane discoloration from low oxygen
• Rales/Crackles: Abnormal lung sounds indicating fluid
• Wheezing: High-pitched whistling from narrowed airways
• Rhonchi: Low-pitched rattling sounds (often due to secretions)
• Productive cough: Cough producing mucus or sputum
• Hypertonia: Increased muscle tone causing stiffness
• Hypotonia: Decreased muscle tone making muscles

Understanding BPH and Overactive Bladder (OAB)

Pathophysiology of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) is characterized by non-malignant prostate growth, which leads to Bladder Outlet Obstruction (BOO) and subsequent detrusor hypertrophy. The body's compensatory changes include increased voiding pressure, incomplete bladder emptying, and urinary stasis. BOO disrupts afferent signaling, which can cause neurogenic detrusor overactivity. Furthermore, chronic obstruction can lead to myogenic bladder dysfunction due to altered smooth muscle excitability.

Epidemiology and Demographics

BPH is more common in older patients, particularly those over 75. There are also notable racial differences:

• Black men often have a higher

Pharmacology Fundamentals

Pharmacokinetics: What the Body Does to the Drug

Phases:

1. Absorption – How a drug enters the bloodstream

2. Distribution – How a drug travels through the body

3. Metabolism – How a drug is broken down (mainly in the liver)

4. Excretion – How a drug leaves the body (mainly through the kidneys)

🧠 Memory Trick: ADME — Absorb, Deliver, Metabolize, Exit

Pharmacodynamics: What the Drug Does to the Body

• Describes how a drug works at the target site

• Involves receptor binding, enzyme interactions, and therapeutic vs. side effects

Examples:

• Beta blockers bind to beta receptors → slow heart rate

• Insulin binds to insulin receptors → lowers blood sugar

Drug Release Types: ER, IR, SR, XL, CR

Diabetes Mellitus Essentials

• Type 1: Autoimmune, insulin-dependent, early onset.
• Type 2: Insulin resistance, gradual onset, linked to diet/weight.
• Diagnosis: Fasting glucose >126 mg/dL, HbA1c.
• Metformin: Hold before contrast dye; risk of lactic acidosis.

Hypoglycemia vs. Hyperglycemia

• Hypoglycemia (<70 mg/dL): Shaky, sweaty, confused, hungry.
• Hyperglycemia: Headache, nausea, fruity breath.
• Treatment: Juice/glucose if conscious; glucagon or D50 if unconscious.

Insulin Types and Administration

• Rapid-acting (Lispro): Onset 10–15 min, eat immediately after injection.
• Short-acting (Regular): Onset 30–60 min.
• Intermediate-acting (NPH): Peak 4–12 hr (cloudy appearance).
• Long-acting (Glargine): No peak, lasts 24 hr.
• Mixing Insulin: Clear (Regular) before

Anti-Motility Medications (Pharmacy Only)

These medications work by relaxing the smooth muscles in the intestinal wall, reducing bowel movements.

Loperamide + Co-phenotrope (Dhamotil)

Loperamide

• Indication: Symptomatic relief of acute or chronic diarrhea.
• Dose: Maximum 16mg daily. Limit use to less than 48 hours.
• Side Effects: Constipation, nausea, vomiting, bloating.
• Special Precautions (SPC):
  • Stop taking once diarrhea resolves (constipation may occur).
  • Take with food.

Co-phenotrope

• Indication: Acute diarrhea in adults.
• Dose: Maximum 8 tablets daily.
• Contraindications: Not for children under 12 years old.
• Special Precautions (SPC): May cause dizziness and drowsiness; do not drive or operate machinery.

Adsorbent Medications (General Sales List)

Adsorbents... Continue reading "Effective Diarrhea Relief: Medications and Management" »

Common Medical Abbreviations

• RSI: Repetitive Stress Injury
• SAD: Seasonal Affective Disorder
• SIDS: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
• GP: General Practitioner
• HAV: Hepatitis A Virus
• MD: Medical Doctor

Medications and Treatments

• Decongestant: Decreases nasal stuffiness and relieves a runny nose.
• Anticoagulant: Prevents or delays blood clotting.
• Sedative: Relieves symptoms of stress, irritability, or excitement.
• Laxative: Relieves constipation.
• Digitalis: Strengthens the failing heart.
• Diuretic: Removes excess fluid from the body.
• Antibiotic: Treats infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms.
• Insulin: Regulates the level of sugar in the blood, used to treat diabetes.

Common Symptoms and Their Causes

• Fainting, dizziness: Anemia
• Headache: Sinus infection
• Fever:

Human Anatomy: English-Spanish Vocabulary

• Mouth / Boca
• Knee / Rodilla
• Ears / Orejas
• Lower Arm / Forearm / Antebrazo
• Breast / Pecho
• Eyes / Ojos
• Ankle / Tobillo
• Elbow / Codo
• Waist / Cintura
• Face / Cara
• Calf / Gemelos
• Fingers / Dedos
• Thorax / Chest / Pecho
• Lips / Labios
• Heel / Talón
• Upper Arm / Arm / Brazo
• Nose / Nariz
• Eyebrows / Cejas
• Navel / Umbilicus / Ombligo
• Eyelids / Párpados
• Abdomen / Abdomen
• Forehead / Frente
• Thigh / Muslo
• Hand / Mano
• Back / Espalda
• Cheek / Mejilla
• Toe / Dedo del pie
• Eyelashes / Pestañas
• Leg / Pierna
• Foot / Pie
• Mandible / Jaw / Mandíbula

Medical Symptoms and Signs: English-Spanish

• Fatigue (Symptom) / Fatiga
• Fever (Sign) / Fiebre
• High Blood Pressure (Sign) / Presión Arterial Alta
• Skin Rash (Sign) / Erupción Cutánea
• Lump (Sign) / Bulto
• Color (Sign) /

Parkinson's Disease: Pharmacological Treatments

The primary pharmacological treatment for Parkinson's disease focuses on replenishing dopamine, the neurotransmitter deficient in the disease, and managing associated symptoms. Levodopa, often combined with carbidopa, is the cornerstone of treatment, alongside dopamine agonists, MAO-B inhibitors, COMT inhibitors, and anticholinergic agents.

Key Medications for Parkinson's Disease

1. Levodopa

   Levodopa is a dopamine precursor that can cross the blood-brain barrier and is converted into dopamine in the brain.

   It is typically combined with carbidopa, which inhibits the breakdown of levodopa before it reaches the brain, reducing side effects and improving efficacy.

   Levodopa is effective in improving motor symptoms