Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

1. Nineteenth-Century European Modernism

The transformation and modernization of culture and society were driven by the mission for total art, exemplified by the Rusiñol case.

Stages of Modernism

• 1890–1900 (1st Stage): Advance magazine. Attitudes focused on ideal regeneration.
• 1900–1911 (2nd Stage): Loss of aggressiveness. It began with the Youth magazine.

Joan Maragall

Modernist poetry is characterized by the introduction of symbolism. Maragall (1860–1911), a theoretical essayist and poet, represented the end of modernism. According to his theory of the living word, poetry must be spontaneous.

The Novel

The pessimistic and decadent novel focused on subjectivity. It was not alien to social criticism; in the ruralist novel, nature is a force... Continue reading "Catalan Literature: From Modernism to the New Song" »

Spanish Literature in the 15th Century

1. Poetry in the 15th Century

Along with the traditional song, another way of oral transmission developed: poesía de romancero. Learned poetry brought new themes and poetic styles, as seen in the songbooks. First, troubadour poetry of courtly love appeared. In the second stage of this era, poetry developed moral issues.

Romances

Romances are a large, old collection of poems that began to be composed in the 14th century. They were collected and published in the 16th century. The sung ballads are narrative poems of oral transmission with varied topics. Many are epic ballads that sing of heroic episodes involving great gentlemen like El Cid. There are also lyrical and loving themes. From the end of the 14th... Continue reading "Spanish Literature in the 15th Century: Poetry, Romances, and Celestina" »

Classification by Mode of Articulation

• Occlusive: Articulatory organs are closed completely: p, b, t, d, k, g.
• Fricatives: Articulatory organs are close, leaving a narrow passage for air: f, θ, s, y, x.
• Affricates: An occlusive phase followed by a fricative: c.
• Nasal: The oral cavity is closed and air passes through the nose: m, n, ɲ.
• Lateral: The tip of the tongue divides the oral cavity, and air is discharged through one or both sides: l, ʎ.
• Vibrant: The tip of the tongue vibrates against the alveoli: r, ɾ.

Classification by Place of Articulation

• Bilabial: Pronounced by joining lips: p, b, m.
• Labiodental: Lower lip joins upper teeth: f.
• Interdental: Tongue rests between teeth: θ.
• Dental: Tongue is close to upper teeth: t, d.
• Alveolar: Tongue is

• Songs of Love: These are transpositions of Provençal tired poetry into the Galician-Portuguese tradition. The troubadour addresses his lady, lamenting her rejection or contempt using terms borrowed from the feudal world. These ballads typically lack a chorus and feature a well-defined metric structure. Main article: Cantiga de amor
• Cantigas de Amigo: This is a unique Galician-Portuguese lyric genre, unprecedented in Provençal literature. A woman always speaks in these poems, often in recurring situations such as pilgrimages. The theme is consistently love, with nature playing a significant role. Its structure is based on metric parallelism. Main article: Cantiga de amigo

The Courtly Tradition

Throughout the Middle Ages, the Church's influence... Continue reading "Medieval Galician-Portuguese Lyric and Courtly Poetry" »

Divination and Oracles in Ancient Greece

Divination was the practice of fortune telling performed by seers and oracles to fulfill this function. In Greek religion, there were two kinds of divination: that inspired by the gods and that performed through technical skill. In the first, the diviner received the message directly from the gods, such as the Pythia of Delphi. In the second, the diviner exercised a learned technique in order to interpret the divine will. The sanctuaries where a god spoke through divination were called oracles, the most famous being Delphi and Dodona.

The Delphic Sibyl and Sacred Rituals

The activity of the sanctuary was centered on predicting the future and giving advice. Before entering the temple, the client was purified... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Divination and Funeral Rituals" »

Classification of Literary Expression

Prose and Verse

Literary expression is classified through prose and verse. Prose uses natural language to express concepts, while verse is the artistic expression of language that meets aesthetic needs. Its rhythm is marked by pauses, creating a measured flow.

Literary Genres

Literary genres are the fundamental models for structuring literary texts. Each genre can present diverse works, and realizations of the same genre can reflect the characteristics of a particular age.

Lyrical Genre

Lyrical texts present a subjective view from an intimate perspective. Experiences and feelings prevail, emphasizing the expressive and poetic functions of language. The most common vehicle of expression is the lyric verse.

Subgenres

History of Civil Engineering

One could argue that engineering began when humans started creating tools for everyday life. Early humans used basic engineering principles to obtain food, create clothing, and develop defensive weapons such as axes, spearheads, and hammers. The development of engineering significantly advanced with the agricultural revolution (8000 BC) when nomadic tribes transitioned to cultivating crops and raising livestock.

By 4000 BC, settlements along the Nile, Euphrates, and Indus rivers saw the rise of civilization and the development of writing.

Until relatively recently, the term "architect" encompassed individuals with expertise in architecture, structural engineering, geology, and hydraulics, primarily for military construction.... Continue reading "Civil Engineering: A Historical Perspective" »

The Spanish Renaissance and Its Literary Evolution

The Renaissance is a European movement of the 16th century that applied ideals spread by humanist culture and politics. We can distinguish two basic periods:

First Renaissance (1517–1556)

During this era, Spain emerged as a country open to foreign expansion. This lifestyle fostered a common approach to Italian trends. Thus, a new metric was adopted, based on the use of heroic verse (hendecasyllables), seven-syllable verses, and stanzas such as the sonnet, silva, and lira. The aesthetic ideal was naturalness. Garcilaso de la Vega is the most representative author of this moment. His subject matter is fundamentally sourced from Petrarchan love; love arises in conflict with desire and the impossibility... Continue reading "Spanish Renaissance Literature and Lyric Poetry" »

Song of Exile

El Cid is banished by King Alfonso VI because some envious individuals have accused him of keeping a portion of the taxes collected from Andalusia. He leaves his wife, Jimena, and daughters in the Monastery of Cárdena. Soon after, he begins his military campaigns against the Moors, operating from Teruel to Zaragoza. The conquest culminates with the liberation of the Count of Barcelona, whom El Cid had previously taken prisoner.

Song of the Wedding

El Cid continues his military activities, reaching the Mediterranean and conquering Valencia. He then begs the King to allow Jimena and his daughters to join him in the city. El Cid shows off his conquered lands, having become rich and powerful. Because of this, the Infantes of Carrión... Continue reading "El Cid: Exile, Battles, and Legacy in Medieval Spain" »

Spanish Poetry After the War

1. Poetry in Exile loses contact with the renewal of the years preceding the war. The themes are common to all of them (parental loss, memories, longing to return, etc.), and really care about the land where you live. The existential perspective of life predominates, and the style is more casual and conversational.

2. Spanish Poetry After the War: The process of rehumanization, pulled down in '27, will continue after the war. It is not entirely true for poetry that was cultivated in our country in the '40s and '50s. The poetry scene is divided into:

• Rooted Poetry: A group of authors with a bright, coherent, and orderly vision of the world. The so-called creative Youth (contrary to the negative approach of the rest