Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

The Rise of Ancient Greek Civilization

Greek civilization emerged in the southern Balkan Peninsula and spread to the islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. This territory was known as Hellas. Greece was never a unified state; instead, every valley and island formed an independent state, though they shared a common language and worshiped the same Greek gods.

Periods of Ancient Greek History

Ancient Greek history is traditionally divided into three main periods:

• The Archaic Period (9th to 6th Centuries BC)

  During this era, cities, known as poleis (plural of polis), developed their own governments, lifestyles, laws, and armies, functioning as independent city-states. Notable examples include Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes. Initially, these poleis

The Generation of 1927

The Generation of '27 was an innovative group of Spanish poets who combined tradition and avant-garde styles, bursting onto the literary scene in the 1920s. The year 1927 marked the third anniversary of the death of Góngora.

Key Authors

This generation included Federico García Lorca, Pedro Salinas, Rafael Alberti, Jorge Guillén, Gerardo Diego, Luis Cernuda, and Vicente Aleixandre. Miguel Hernández and Dámaso Alonso are often added to this list.

Stages in the Generation of '27

• 1922-1928: Dominated by pure poetry and admiration for Juan Ramón Jiménez. This period sought the suppression of sentiment and the purification of language.
• 1928-1936: A fracturing of the group's unity occurred. While Guillén and Salinas remained

17th Century Poetry and Prose

1. Conceptismo and Culteranismo

Conceptismo and Culteranismo are underlied by a deep vital skepticism that causes a flight in two different directions. Both strands break the balance of the Renaissance and attend to Baroque literary artifice and difficulty.

• Culteranismo: Represented by Luis de Góngora, it seeks to create a literate poetic language itself. It tends to formal beauty, brilliance of color, and sensory experience. It achieves this through the careful development of language and the abundance of resources (bold metaphors, hyperbaton, etc.).
• Conceptismo: Represented by Francisco de Quevedo, it tends to be concise and expressively dense, and to find wit and ingenuity. It uses ellipsis, paradoxes, word games,

Spanish Modernism

Modernism employed an innovative poetic style, brilliant and often difficult to comprehend, full of metaphors and symbols with a lexicon of textures and sonorities in which we hear colors and see sounds, seeking a raw aesthetic in which content is paramount.

Key authors include: Rubén Darío, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Antonio Machado.

Antonio Machado

Seville was the stage for his early, more intimate and simpler language than that of Rubén Darío. But he soon began to address the problems of the people, adopting a more sober, direct style, less fraught with symbols. He became a major exponent of the poetic Generation of '98 with Campos de Castilla. He lived in Soria for years as a French teacher, was in favor of the Republic during... Continue reading "Key Authors of Spanish Modernism and Gen '98" »

Evolution and Characteristics of Catalan Poetry (1970s-1990s)

In 1973, Valencian poetry, which happened simultaneously with shifts in Catalan poetry (notably the 1973 publications by Llibres del Mall, and works by Ramon Pinyol and Xavier Bru de Sala), moved away from the preceding realism. New reference points included Joan Navarro (1974: Grills us sharpen knives to break fear) and Salvador Jàfer (1974: The muffled footsteps from the beach). The anthology by Damià Fabregat (1974: Fresh Meat) collected this change in orientation.

Poetry during the '80s continued more or less with the same parameters. Poets constructed a view of reality from the self through the sum of personal experiences, considering poetry as an expression of intimacy and... Continue reading "Catalan Poetry Shift: 1970s-1990s Evolution & Features" »

The Origins and Evolution of Roman Epic Poetry

Roots in Oral Tradition and Greek Influence

Roman epic poetry has roots in the oral tradition of carmina (songs) that were sung at banquets. From the third century BC, Rome came into contact with Greek culture, which subsequently led to a break from the genre conventions of the traditional Greek epic.

Homer’s finest works, the Iliad and the Odyssey, served as models for the later Greek epic, establishing conventions such as:

• The use of the hexameter meter.
• The intervention of the gods.
• The catalog of ships and troops.
• Comparisons with nature (similes).

Early Roman Epic (The Archaic Period)

Livius Andronicus

The first Roman epic was the Odusia by the Greek slave Livius Andronicus. This work was essentially... Continue reading "The History and Literary Legacy of Roman Epic Poetry" »

Galdós's Exploration of Consciousness and Morality

At this stage, the cult of consciousness is a consistent feature of Galdós's novels. Consciousness serves as a source of knowledge, revealing imperfections and deviations. This awareness radiates righteousness, as embodied in the figures of the sounds, a sign of Benin.

Mercy

• Benina is asked to help his wife, who is concerned with social appearances. Benina has some strengths and hides what she does, helping his wife discreetly. This novel has a moral content, ridiculing many customs (plantemientos of the church), but conveying a Christian message (focusing on morality rather than Christianity). It also provides a historical portrait of Madrid.
• Initially, it was well-received, but today it is

Catalan Literature: A Historical Overview

Medieval Period

Ramon Llull (1235-1315)

Ramon Llull, a nobleman dedicated to troubadour poetry, experienced a life-altering event after marrying and having two children. He saw visions of Jesus, which led him to dedicate his life to religious service. Llull is considered the creator of Catalan literary prose. He explored themes of periphrasis, including duty, probability, imminence, possibility, and duration.

Tirant lo Blanc

This chivalric novel, often attributed to Joanot Martorell, is characterized by its human portrayal of characters, realistic events, and exploration of relationships.

Ausiàs March (1397-1459)

Ausiàs March is a major figure in classical Catalan poetry. He is credited with creating the... Continue reading "Catalan Literature: From Medieval to Modern" »

Spanish Poetry of the 1940s and 1950s

Miguel Hernández (1910-1942)

From Perito en lunas and El rayo que no cesa, the poet began to address his core subjects: life, love, and death. He wrote Viento del pueblo, featuring a popular style with patriotic and martial themes. Cancionero y romancero de ausencias is a collection of simple poems about prison, anxiety over the fate of his wife and son, the pain of his deceased child, and death in war-torn Spain.

Poetry of the 1940s: Rooted vs. Uprooted

Two main groups emerged:

Rooted Poetry (Poesía Arraigada)

Poets from the group calling themselves "Juventud Creadora" gathered around the magazines Garcilaso and Escorial. Its features include:

• Heroic or imperialist subjects alongside love and religious themes.

Pere Quart: Paid Holidays

Metric Series

Paid Holidays is a metric series of up to eight stanzas with a variety of metrics and verses without regular rhyme.

Structure

A structure can be established based on the increasingly pathetic gradation, which presents the poetic "I".

• Part One (verses 1-4): It begins with a blunt pair of verses with the term "amén," meaning "so be it," because of the many disappointments that the poet accepts resignedly.
• Part Two (verses 5-7): It temporalizes the enthusiasms and disappointments of belief in the fatherland and the people who left. He identifies with Job (one of the biblical characters who suffered the most misfortune) in the most miserable stage of rejection and marginalization. So then he says with irony that