Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Roman Magistrates: Roles and Powers

Qualifications for Roman Magistracies

The primary condition for access to a Roman magistracy was to be a Roman citizen. It was also necessary to possess a considerable fortune, demonstrate minimal experience in managing public affairs, and have no cause for unworthiness. Each magistrate had at least one colleague, and each could veto the decisions of another, ensuring no one held absolute power.

Structure of Roman Magistracies

Roman magistrates were divided into two main categories: ordinary and extraordinary.

Ordinary Roman Magistrates

The ordinary magistrates included Quaestors, Aediles, Praetors, Consuls, Censors, and Tribunes of the People. Most of these roles were part of the cursus honorum, a sequential order... Continue reading "Roman Magistrates: Structure, Roles, and Powers" »

Garcilaso de la Vega

Garcilaso de la Vega embodies the model of the Renaissance man. Of noble origin, he was a poet-soldier whose life was marked by Emperor Charles V. He met Isabel Freyre, who inspiró many of his love poems. His interest in education was that of a humanist: he knew Greek and Latin, and had read Italian Renaissance poets. He died at 36 years old.

Works

His brief but significant work highlights his sonnets and three Eclogues:

• Égloga I: The most valued, where the shepherds Salicio and Nemoroso express their complaints in a gentle, bucolic natural setting. Salicio laments the disdain of his lady Galatea, while Nemoroso mourns Elisa. Both shepherds represent Garcilaso himself, singing to his beloved in life and after death.
• Égloga

The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha: A Satire of Chivalry

Miguel de Cervantes makes a satire of the romances popular in his time. It narrates the random adventures of a gentleman who lost his sanity because of his excessive fondness for books of chivalry. The work was published in two parts:

• Part I: The Ingenious Hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha (1605)
• Part II: The second part of the work (1615)

Part I: The Adventures of Don Quixote (1605)

The first part of Don Quixote recounts two major outings or trips.

The First Exit: The Birth of a Knight-Errant

This section is a relatively autonomous piece. It narrates how Alonso Quijano, the protagonist, decides to become a knight-errant. He chooses an appropriate name for a gentleman: “Don Quixote.

Synopsis

The book deals with historical facts, but transformed: the aggressors, Basques, become Saracen Muslims, which allows for issuing a crusade and triggering events based on the betrayal of Ganelon. Roland is the nephew of Emperor Charlemagne and has a close friend, Oliveros, a non-historical character.

After seven years of Crusade, Emperor Charlemagne conquered Spain from the Moors. Only Zaragoza, city of King Marsilio, resists. The Franks are suspicious about peace proposals. Roland proposes his stepfather, Ganelon, as ambassador. Ganelon believes that Roland intends to send him to his death and decides to get revenge. As ambassador, he prepares treason against Roland, stirring the Moors, who are responsible for the harassment they are... Continue reading "The Song of Roland: Summary, Characters, and Legacy" »

Who Was Christopher Columbus?

The identity of Christopher Columbus remains debated today. Most historians place his birth in Genoa, Italy, with the date ranging from 1430 to the commonly accepted year of 1451.

Origins and Early Life

After surviving a shipwreck off the coast of Portugal, he established himself there.

The Idea of Sailing West

It is difficult to know precisely when Columbus conceived the idea of reaching Cipango (present-day Japan) by sailing west, but it was likely around 1481. It is probable that he knew the works of the Florentine mathematician Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli and his theory of reaching the Indies by sailing west. Columbus, influenced by these ideas, estimated the distance would not exceed 2,500 miles. Another influential... Continue reading "Christopher Columbus: Life, Voyages, and Legacy" »

16th Century Spanish Poetry: Themes and Forms

The 16th century marked a significant period for Spanish poetry. Traditional and lyrical ballads, while often oral, were also widely disseminated through common songbooks. A key date in this era is 1543, which saw the introduction of new poetic genres and themes. These included classical motifs such as:

• Carpe diem (Seize the day)
• Collige, virgo, rosas (Gather, maiden, the roses)
• The Golden Mean
• Beatus ille (Blessed is he)

Mythology also played a prominent role. The predominant theme was love, influenced by philosophy and often detached from purely carnal appetites. Love was depicted as a force that could improve individuals, but also as a source of pain and frustration for the unrequited lover. Common... Continue reading "Spanish Renaissance Literature: Poets, Prose, and Enduring Themes" »

Spanish Poetry: From the Early 20th Century to the Post-War Era

The 19th century closed with the disaster of '98 and the loss of overseas colonies. The history of Spain from that time experienced a period of great activity. In these years, culture reached great splendor, quality, and the role of intellectuals. This period has become known as the *Silver Age* of Spanish culture.

The heroes of these years tend to be classified into generations: Modernism, the Generation of '98, Noucentisme, the Avant-garde, and the Generation of '27. The modernist innovators shared the desire and the need to show their displeasure with the reality that surrounded them. The members of the Generation of '98 had very different styles but had in common an awareness... Continue reading "Spanish Poetry: Early 20th Century to Post-War Era" »

Realistic Theater

Realistic Theater is a tendency in the theater of war. It starts with the story of Antonio Buero Vallejo's A Stairway and ends with Alfonso Sastre's Death Squad. They stage existential conflicts.

Key Features:

• Proposed scenarios reflect the harsh reality of Spain at the time, unlike bourgeois theater, which takes the audience away from that reality.
• It is a formally innovative theater, especially in the beginning, although, over the years, it eventually adopted its own dramatic resources from modern theater.
• It uses resources to achieve viewer identification with characters.
• To avoid censorship, it often used symbolic or allegorical elements to address issues such as lack of freedom and social injustice.
• It places its work in a specific

Novecentismo

A Spanish literary movement whose authors embody the new intellectual who cares about form and pursues pure art, whose sole purpose is aesthetic enjoyment.

Vanguard Movements

Following the Modernist period, the Vanguard movements emerged:

• Futurism: Defends breaking with previous culture, exalting the modern, mechanical, and technical.
• Cubism: Vindicates the autonomy of the artwork; the writer aims to capture the simultaneity of reality.
• Dadaism: Aims to show the absurdity of life.
• Surrealism: Advocates for a total revolution of the human being, seeking transformation through imagination and poetry. It seeks a higher reality beyond aesthetic reason and morality. Its predecessor was the Frenchman André Breton. The pursuit of the irrational

Francisco de Quevedo: Life and Works

Francisco de Quevedo was a famous poet during his lifetime. He was a prolific writer, producing sonnets, ballads, letrillas, songs, letters, and more. His poems are remarkably varied in content, tone, and intention, ranging from the bold and the grotesque to the lofty and the sublime.

Beyond being an excellent poet, Quevedo was an exceptional prose writer, noted both for his political writings and his satirical and festive plays.

Literary Mastery and Expressive Richness

Francisco de Quevedo demonstrated a masterly and absolute command of the Spanish language and all its poetic forms. His expressive richness, variety of themes, wit, ingenuity, and extreme sensitivity establish him as one of the most relevant... Continue reading "Francisco de Quevedo: Master of Spanish Baroque Poetry and Prose" »