Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Life and Death: A Philosophical View

Life's Earthly Condition

Life is a condition of individuals represented in earthly actions. We can find that life contrasts with death, which is a completely different event, perhaps represented at another, possibly celestial, plane. Life, in turn, may be related to a river: it originates from the mountains, grows in the valleys, leaves ramifications, and ends by merging with the sea.

Literary Treatment of Mortality

The theme of life and death is hotly discussed in literature, more specifically in the poetic genre of the medieval funeral elegy. This genre is characterized by encompassing everything man thinks and feels regarding the problem of life and death.

Jorge Manrique's Contribution

One of the most representative... Continue reading "Life and Death: Philosophical Reflections in Literature" »

Significance of La Celestina in Spanish Literature

La Celestina is considered a masterpiece of the fifteenth century and one of the most outstanding works in Spanish literature, even in universal literature. Menéndez Pelayo, a scholar of the work, stated that in the absence of Don Quixote, La Celestina would occupy first place among the imaginative books composed in Spain. Celestina's character also belongs to the gallery of universal characters of Spanish literature, along with Don Quixote, Sancho, and Don Juan.

Historical, Social, and Cultural Context

La Celestina appeared during the transition period from the fifteenth to the sixteenth century, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, which marked the beginning of a brilliant stage in Spanish... Continue reading "The Significance and Context of La Celestina" »

The following rules dictate proper subject-verb agreement, particularly focusing on impersonal constructions and specific verb usages.

Key Rules for Subject-Verb Concordance

1. Transitive Verb + Direct SE (Passive Voice)

   The verb agrees with the subject (the words that come after SE) in number and gender.

   • Singular: A letter will be written.
   • Plural: The rules are being discussed.

2. Intransitive, Transitive Indirect, or Impersonal Verbs + SE

   The verb is always used in the singular (impersonal construction).

   • Employees are needed.
   • One doubts his honesty.

3. The Verb 'Haver' (To Have/There Is/Are)

   When indicating existence or elapsed time, the verb 'Haver' is always used in the singular (impersonal).

   • There were outstanding issues.

4. The Verb 'Fazer' (To Do/Make) Indicating

Key Figures and Dynasties

The Merovingians and Carolingians

• King Clovis I (481–511): Converted to Catholicism, unifying the Gallo-Romans and the Franks.
• Charles Martel: The person chosen by the sons of King Clovis to rule their land (Mayor of the Palace).
• Pepin the Short: Son of Charles Martel, marking the beginning of the Carolingian Dynasty.
• Charlemagne: Pepin's son, who was proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor on December 25, 800.
• Louis the Pious (814–840): Son of Charlemagne.

The Byzantine Empire

• Emperor Justinian I (527–575): Wanted to reestablish the unity and splendor of the former Roman Empire.
• Theodora: Wife of Emperor Justinian I.
• Strategoi: Governor of a theme (province).
• Hagia Sophia: Important cathedral (later mosque/museum).

Historical Events

Poetic Function in Literature

The Poetic Function refers to the particular construction of the message within literary discourse, distinguishing it from other forms. As Mario Vargas Llosa states, "if words had no more than one sense, the dictionary, where a second language did not come to disturb and release the certainties of language, there would be no literature." Thus, language becomes the main character through a careful selection and combination of words that the author uses to convey a precise meaning.

Fact and Fiction in Literary Texts

The purpose of literary texts is to represent, through words, a perception of a possible and peculiar world. In this sense, fiction—literature itself—corresponds to an image of reality that a particular... Continue reading "Key Literary Concepts: Function, Fiction, Canon, Genre" »

The Epic: Definition and Characteristics

The epic (from the ancient Greek adjective epikos (ἐπικός), derived from epos (ἔπος), meaning "word, story, poem"^[1]) is a literary genre in which the author presents legendary or fictitious events, often presented as true or based on truth, developed within a specific time and space. Authors typically employ narrative, but also use description and dialogue. Some epics were not written but transmitted orally by bards.

Homer and the Homeric Poems

Homer is the only bard whose poems are preserved. An 8th-century BCE poet, little is known of Homer's life. At one time, his very existence was questioned, and it was thought that the Homeric poems were the result of oral folk tradition, unified under... Continue reading "Ancient Greek Literature: Epic Poetry and Theater" »

Spanish Golden Age Literature

Culteranismo focused on formal beauty, using cultured language and creating an artificial style. The concept is based on wit, irony, paradox, and double meaning.

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-1616)

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, creator of the modern novel, dedicated his life to various genres, most notably the novel. He wrote pastoral novels such as Galatea and Byzantine works like Persiles and Sigismunda.

His Novelas Ejemplares (Exemplary Novels), a collection of twelve short stories, were written because Cervantes believed that learning would benefit readers. His most famous work is Don Quixote. The meaning of the work was to destroy the authority of the novels of chivalry, employing various literary forms and... Continue reading "Spanish Golden Age Literature: Cervantes, Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón" »

Lope de Vega set aside classical rules for theater and introduced his own innovations. The most prominent of these was breaking the rule of the three unities. These unities dictated that:

• Time: Classical theater works could not be developed within more than a day. Lope wanted to break this rule and have works last several years.
• Place: The work was developed in one place. Baroque theater puts it in different places.
• Action: The work was to have a single action so the audience's attention did not deviate from the main subject. This was generally respected in Baroque theater.

Drama is a tragedy because it is mixed with the comic, reflecting real life where the tragic and comic always mix. Baroque theater is divided into three acts instead of the... Continue reading "Baroque Theater: Innovations, Structure, and Characters" »

Narrative in the Second Half of the 20th Century

Introduction to Spanish Narrative Periods

Before the outbreak of the Civil War, the narrative developing in Spain fell into three large blocks of novels:

1. Traditional Realist Novels
2. Novels of Noventaychismo (Generation of '98)
3. Novecentismo Literature

Following the end of the Civil War, and focusing on authors who remained in Spain (outside of exile), Spanish narrative is typically divided into four distinct stages.

Stages of Post-Civil War Spanish Narrative

A) The Novel of the 1940s

The Civil War marked a discontinuity in the history of Spanish literature due to political reasons. Authors faced very strong political censorship during the first 15 years of the dictatorship, which prevented them from continuing... Continue reading "Spanish and Latin American Narrative: 20th Century Literary Evolution" »

Old English Period (Anglo-Saxon Period 449-1066)

Key themes: Fate (destino), religion vs. paganism, Christianity vs. Germanic traditions, heroic warriors, morality.

Authors: Bede, Exeter Book. Emphasis on oral tradition and poetry.

Anglo-Saxon Literature:

• Poetry: Loyalty to one's lord or king. Beowulf.
• Christian poetry: Saints' lives. The Dream of the Rood. Authors: Caedmon, Cynewulf.
• Prose: Translations of texts from Latin into English. Literature illuminates reality and destiny. Two traditions: English and German.

Middle English Period (1066-1485)

Key aspects: Plays (moral and religious instructions), chivalric code of honor, religious devotion.

Books: Domesday Book, Le Morte d'Arthur.

Author: Geoffrey Chaucer.

The Renaissance (1485-1660)

Key themes:... Continue reading "English Literature Periods: From Anglo-Saxon to Contemporary" »