Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Latin

Other Languages are Spanish: Galician, Catalan and Basque

Galician, which comes from Portuguese-Galician formed in the northwest, expanded south with the Reconquista. It had a flourishing literary culture in the Middle Ages, later declined, and reappeared with Romanticism. Currently, it is spoken in western Asturias, El Bierzo, and northwestern Zamora. However, it is in Galicia where the language is recognized as official.

The second language, Catalan, born in the northeast corner, was spreading through Catalonia, the Kingdom of Valencia, and the Balearic Islands. At first, it enjoyed a huge literary development that eventually fell into decay and resurfaced with the Renaixença. Today, it is the official language of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands,... Continue reading "Bilingualism and Diglossia in Spain: Languages" »

Pedro Calderón de la Barca

He wrote a theater of ideas, which deepened the moral and philosophical concerns of his era. The dilemmas reflected in his dramas include the passage of time, the misleading nature of reality, and honor (e.g., El Alcalde de Zalamea and Life is a Dream).

The Enlightenment (17th-18th Centuries)

Originating in England and France, the Enlightenment was a philosophical and intellectual movement that emphasized reason and individualism over tradition. It was characterized by:

• Defense of reason over faith
• Confidence in science and education
• The goal of eradicating superstition and ignorance

"Everything for the people, but without the people." This phrase reflects the enlightened despotism adopted by monarchs like Carlos III of... Continue reading "Spanish Literature in the Age of Enlightenment" »

Lazarillo de Tormes inaugurates a new literary subgenre: the picaresque novel. It takes the form of a pseudo-autobiographical story. The protagonist, of miserable origins, abandons his family environment and serves several masters. The main character has a picaresque character (astute, prudent, suspicious) and a strong desire to prosper. The story aims to explain a final state of dishonor.

Date and Authorship

The first editions kept are dated 1554, and all manuscripts are missing. No author is listed.

Literary Sources

• The Golden Ass, where the work of Apuleius influences the nature of the main character.
• Boy with Many Masters, a fourth book about the brave knight Rinaldo de Montalban, influences the autobiographical narrative process.
• Carat Loves

Mester de Clerecía: 13th and 14th Centuries

Characteristics and Content

The Mester de Clerecía is the set of works composed by clerics during the 13th and 14th centuries. These texts have ethical content and a didactic, religious purpose. The stanza employed is the cuaderna vía. They were transmitted orally because the majority of the population was illiterate.

Gonzalo de Berceo

Gonzalo de Berceo is the first known Castilian poet. The Miracles of Our Lady are stories of miracles in which the Virgin Mary protects and forgives. It is divided into two parts: an introduction and a set of twenty-five miracles.

1. Presentation
2. Devotee's difficulties
3. Appearances of the Virgin
4. Final reflections

The Book of Good Love

The Book of Good Love, written by Juan Ruiz,

Romanticism

Romantic poets had as their themes: rejection of the environment, emotional excitement, liberated longing, and communion with nature.

• Poetry: Intimate lyric poetry that expresses the frustrations of the poet.
• Narrative: Collected legends and historical themes.

José de Espronceda

He is a romantic liberal prototype, exalted. His poetry is a passionate hymn to freedom, with a brilliant, musical, and effective style.

Works: Sancho Saldaña, Blanca de Borbón, El Estudiante de Salamanca, El Diablo Mundo, Hymn to the Sun.

Style: Pompous and emphatic, brilliant musicality.

Late Romanticism

Intimate romantic lyricism reached its climax late, with Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro. Both favor a simple, lyrical, and introspective style.... Continue reading "Spanish Literature: Romanticism to the Generation of '98" »

Philosophy in Ancient Rome

Philosophy in Rome, while deeply rooted in Greek traditions, experienced a significant evolution. It was initially introduced and popularized through Scipio's circle, which embraced Panhellenism. While this cultural movement was welcomed, it faced strong nationalist opposition. Aspects of philosophy like logic and metaphysics received little attention in Rome. Conversely, ethics, focusing on practical life, immediately attracted Roman thinkers.

Stoicism and Epicureanism were the dominant philosophical schools influencing Roman thought, although Stoicism failed to permeate the masses. Stoicism laid the foundations of Roman humanism and later influenced Christian thought. Its implementation occurred through Scipio's circle,... Continue reading "Roman Philosophy: History, Figures, and Influence" »

Didactic Prose

Didactic prose answers the intention of approaching pedagogical works. Several types can be distinguished:

Doctrinal Prose

Doctrinal prose writings are reflective, of a philosophical type. Its maximum representative is Baltasar Gracián, characterized by verbal wit, precision, and expressive rigor. He pursued concision and reached a hermetic language aimed at a cultured minority. His work answers an intention to seek a doctrinal model of a person able to overcome vices. The most important works are: The Hero, The Art of Worldly Wisdom, The Art of Prudence, and The Mind's Acuity and Art of Ingenuity.

Philological Prose

Classical works of this period are:

• Sebastián de Covarrubias: authored the Treasury of the Castilian or Spanish Language.

Copulative Conjunctions

Y, E

Adversative Conjunctions

But, however

Explanatory Conjunctions

That is, namely

Alternative Conjunctions

O, U

Distributive Conjunctions

So, for instance, consequently

Modernism

Features

Modernism receives various influences:

• Parnassianism: Pursues the expression of beauty and formal perfection.
• Symbolism: Aims to find the true reality of things behind symbolism.

Key issues of Modernism:

• Recreating beautiful places and objects.
• Presenting sensations and emotions.
• An aristocratic rejection of reality.
• Evasion in space and time towards the past, distant, and exotic lands.
• Incorporating cultism and words chosen for their sound and ability to evoke feelings.
• Searching for musicality, recovering classical verse.

Rubén Darío

Born in Metapa,... Continue reading "Modernism, Naturalism, and Key Authors in Literature" »

Lyrical Genres

• Ode: A poem expressing elevated feelings, often with a formal tone.
• Elegy: A poem expressing grief or sorrow over loss.
• Track/Lyrical Composition: Sung poems of varying length, often exploring themes of love.
• Eclogue: Works featuring idealized shepherds and expressing love in idyllic settings.

Narrative Genres

• Epic: A long narrative poem about the deeds of a heroic figure or the history of a nation.
• Chanson de Geste: A long poem about a hero and their adventures.
• Novel: A long, complex narrative with a central character and intricate plotlines.
• Tale: A short story with a concise narrative and a striking ending.
• Apologue: A story with a clear moral purpose.
• Fable: A short story, typically with animals as characters, conveying a moral lesson.

Innovators and the Generation of '27

During this period, Spain experienced a decline due to the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. Writers of the time expressed great discontent with the state of Spain. Despite political instability, a literary boom occurred.

The Avant-Garde Movements

The Avant-Garde movements arose, sharing several characteristics. Unlike the past, they rejected realism, sentimentality, reason, logic, and traditional metrics. They embraced free verse, original elements, neologisms, and references to current events.

The Avant-Garde can be divided into two groups:

Optimistic Avant-Garde

• Futurism: Focused on new technologies.
• Ultraism
• Creationism: A Hispanic movement created by Vicente Huidobro.
• Cubism: Figures are drawn