Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

The Roman Empire: Origins

The Roman Empire was a territory conquered by the city of Rome. The River Tiber forms a meander near its mouth around seven hills. The Etruscans, a people from the center of Italy, conquered the seven hills in the 7^th century BC and turned the small villages into a real city: Rome. This is the origin of the Roman Empire.

The Etruscan Monarchy and the Birth of the Republic

In the beginning, Rome was ruled by seven kings. The last monarchs were Etruscans. The king was assisted by a Senate. Rome clashed with different Etruscan cities, which it defeated. The Romans threw out the Etruscan monarchs and established the Republic in 509 BC.

A Period of Conquest

The citizens met in assemblies called Comitia to pass laws and to elect... Continue reading "History of the Roman Empire: Republic to Decline" »

Bartomeu Rosselló-Pòrcel (1913–1938)

Literary Work

His poetry is short but dense. He adopted patterns of Baroque and Culterana poetry alongside classicizing elements. Key works include Nou Poemes (1933) and Quadern de Sonets (1934). Published posthumously was Imitació del Foc (1938).

Topics and Figures

His work features world competitions dominated by a game of opposites with a symbolic sense. He was clearly influenced by Baudelaire, and comparisons are drawn between him and the Angels (mediators between earth and heaven). There is an abundance of adjectivization, epithets, and superlatives. His metrics range from strict standards to free verse.

Literary Trends

• Early Period (Pre-1936): Investigation of pure poetry and a break with the Majorcan

Catullus: The Learned Poet of the Poetae Novi

A group of poets known as the Poetae Novi (New Poets) initiated a trend towards more refined poetic subjectivity, prosodic and metrical perfection, and more sensitive themes such as life, death, and love. Catullus (Gaius Valerius Catullus) is considered the foremost lyric poet of this movement.

Born into a wealthy family from Verona, Catullus possessed great intellect and was called doctus poeta (learned poet) for writing with singular mastery. He delved deeply into the Alexandrian Greek tradition. His surviving work comprises 116 poems, which are typically divided into three groups based on their meter and style:

1. Nugae (Trifles - Poems 1-60): These are shorter poems, primarily in hendecasyllables

Late Emergence of Castilian Prose

Prose creations appeared very late in Castilian literature. Early writings were brief annotations in the margins and romances interspersed within Latin texts. At that time, Latin was not understood by all and was translated. It was the language of the church, monasteries, schools, and universities, which for centuries were ecclesiastical centers radiating culture. This Latin culture, of religious inspiration, held itself apart from the Romance languages, contemptuously referring to them as 'romances'.

13th-Century Prose and Scientific Learning

The powerful influence of Arabic and Hebrew cultures, which had assimilated and retained much Greco-Latin knowledge, was significant. Royal support for cultural activities... Continue reading "Evolution of Castilian Prose: From Annotations to Literary Works" »

Realism and Naturalism in 19th-Century Literature

Realism

Realism, emerging in the mid-19th century, emphasized portraying everyday reality and social issues. Rooted in empiricism and positivism, this movement sought to objectively depict the world through observation and experimentation, often exploring social inequalities as highlighted by Marxism.

Naturalism, a related movement, delved into the darker aspects of society, applying a scientific lens to analyze social problems.

Characteristics of Realist Novels

• Focus on everyday reality and contemporary environments.
• Exploration of specific social and political conflicts of the time.
• Objective and critical portrayal of society.
• Presence of the author's opinions.
• Use of an omniscient narrator, revealing

Generation of '27:

The poets of the Generation of '27, who contributed to publications like La Gaceta Literaria and Revista de Occidente, employed elaborate language in their pursuit of "pure" intellectual poetry, devoid of sentimentality. They emphasized beauty, poetic play, metaphors, and other literary devices, making abundant use of imagery and visionary elements.

Key Figures:

• Luis Cernuda: Eclogue, Elegy and Ode, The Forbidden Pleasures, Where Oblivion Dwells, Desolation of the Imagination, Reality and Desire, Profile of the Air (first book of poetry).
• Pedro Salinas: Secure Chance, The Voice You Love, Due and Reasonable, All Things Clear, The Defender (essay).
• Jorge Guillén: Cántico (as a whole: chant, cry, and tribute).
• Vicente Aleixandre:

Renaissance Theater

Renaissance Theater is divided into public and popular audiences.

Renaissance Public Audience

Predominantly featured didactic, moral, or religious intentions. This category included:

• Court Theater: For persons dealing with Court themes, preferably secular. Notable figures include Juan del Encina and Torres Naharro.
• Humanistic Comedy: Translations of classical works were read in small groups. These reading groups developed in universities and colleges.
• Religious Theater: Religious representations were performed. They coincided with festivities in courts and churches.

Renaissance Popular Audience

The popular theater emerged in the sixteenth century under the influence of Italian companies that influenced Spain and introduced the so-... Continue reading "Spanish Renaissance and Baroque Theater" »

Spanish Renaissance Literary Figures

Fray Luis de León: Christian Humanism and Poetry

Fray Luis de León was a prominent figure whose life reflected the complex and often confusing times of the Spanish Renaissance. A highly cultured man and a humanist who taught theology, he is renowned for his extraordinary work as a Latin translator. He also authored significant books on religious and moral issues.

His poetry consists of odes and songs of praise, primarily written in 'liras,' following the model of Garcilaso de la Vega. These works possess a strong moral tone, reflecting the profound influence of classical authors such as Plato and Virgil. In his writings, Fray Luis de León masterfully fused Platonism with Christian thought, often presenting... Continue reading "Spanish Renaissance Literature: Authors, Styles, and Genres" »

Spanish Drama Before 1939

Spanish drama up to 1939 saw very strong trading conditions with a local predominance of private, public taste that came to their rooms (the bourgeoisie). There were few possibilities to reach the capacity for self-criticism of the Spanish theater audience. The first third of the century is divided into two fronts: the triumphant-follower stage, which triumphed in the late nineteenth century.

Key Movements and Playwrights

A] Bourgeois Comedy with Benavente

B] Verse Drama, with Contributions of Modernism

C] Comic Theater, with a Predominant Traditional Style

Jacinto Benavente (1866-1954)

Jacinto Benavente is the most representative figure of the possibilities and limitations of the bold moment. He had a beginning with "The... Continue reading "Spanish Drama Before 1939: Key Playwrights and Movements" »

Celestite: A Literary Work of Profound Depth and Complexity

Authorship

In the first edition, no title or signature appears. A new edition was later published, titled Comedy of Calisto and Melibea. Subsequent editions bore the title Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea.

Problems of the Genre

The work is written exclusively in dialogue, without narration or descriptions. Some consider it a dramatic piece destined for reading due to its extension and the complexity of the spatiotemporal aspects of the characters' psychology. Others consider it a narrative, like a novel in dialogue. Some think it is an "anti-novel" that tried to create a kind of sentimental work, similar to how Cervantes criticized books of chivalry. The delimitation of its genre is... Continue reading "Celestite: Unveiling Literary Depth and Renaissance Themes" »