Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

Walt Whitman: Poet of the American Spirit

Walt Whitman writes from the viewpoint of the pioneer, the founder of the new American nation and its new espacio vital. His work not only covers the "poetic" but encompasses the entire American community, instilling pride in being part of something larger – a homeland, a universe. His approach balances the epic (as a collective venture) with an intimate and lyrical exaltation of participation. Whitman holds an optimistic view, trusting in the strength of society. His poetry is vital, energetic, and promotes community and nature. Throughout his poems, he spreads faith in humanity and the American citizen. The poetic element binds all his work.

Key Aspects of Leaves of Grass

In Leaves of Grass, Whitman... Continue reading "Poetic Visions: Walt Whitman and Charles Baudelaire" »

L'Atlàntida: Verdaguer's Early Epic

L'Atlàntida aconsegueix els honors dels Jocs Florals, permetent a Jacint Verdaguer dedicar-se exclusivament a ser escriptor. A partir d'aleshores, Verdaguer comença a viatjar i a escriure sobre les seves impressions en prosa. Amb els anys, també s'aprecia la seva paraula poètica religiosa.

En definitiva, L'Atlàntida és un gran poema èpic culte que incorpora la literatura catalana amb una gran construcció narrativa, incloent molts elements de llenguatge popular (com termes de geologia i natura). Amb la seva poesia, Verdaguer volia aconseguir:

• Convèncer la societat.
• Mostrar les seves conclusions religioses.

Canigó: Masterpiece of Catalan Literature

Canigó és un poema èpic que supera L'Atlàntida. Comprèn... Continue reading "Jacint Verdaguer's Epic Poems: L'Atlàntida and Canigó" »

La Celestina (1499)

The play was first published anonymously, attributed to an anonymous author, and focused on the characters of Melibea and Callisto. It consisted of 16 acts. Later, it was attributed to Fernando de Rojas. In 1502, it was printed with a new title, Tragicomedy of Calisto and Melibea, and with 5 new acts. The work is known mainly as La Celestina. La Celestina is a very long work in dialogue. Some consider it a novel, others a play, while others think it is a dialogued novel.

Style: Cultured and popular language.

Characters: Divided into two groups: the upper class, such as Calisto and Melibea, and the popular class, such as Celestina, prostitutes, and servants.

Topics: Love, death, greed, selfishness, avarice, class struggle.

The

The Convention of Vergara: A Pivotal Agreement

The legal agreement and transactions between General Rafael Maroto and General Baldomero Espartero, culminating in the Convention of Vergara, marked a significant turning point in Spain's First Carlist War, leading to a liberal outcome.

Key Figures in the Agreement

• General Baldomero Espartero: A prominent Liberal commander, Espartero had achieved significant victories, such as at the Battle of Luchana in 1836. He later became regent following the resignation of Maria Cristina. His regency, however, became increasingly dictatorial, leading to events like the bombing of Barcelona. He was eventually deposed and went into exile, largely influenced by British pressure.
• Lieutenant General Rafael Maroto:

The Life and Death in the Poetry of Miguel Hernández

Many have noted the relationship between biography and lyrical creation. The life of Miguel Hernández is a prime example: passions, jail, and death of a poet.

The work of Miguel Hernández is like a life: start-ups, youthful drive, and personal affirmation that leads to accepting life as punishment.

Early Poems: Vitality and Optimism

From the first poems to "The Lightning That Never Stops," there's a conscious disregard, carefree vitalism, and natural optimism. His life goes one way, and his work another.

Nature and Death

Many poems pay homage to nature: plants, rocks, bugs, etc., from the orchards of Orihuela. Miguel picks up things as if they were alive; death does not diminish the beauty of... Continue reading "Miguel Hernández: Life, Death, and Poetry's Tragic Beauty" »

Baroque Literature in 17th Century Spain

LITERATURE T-4: The Baroque: A cultural movement that developed in Spain in the 17th century. The awareness generated by the crisis, pessimism, and disappointment gave rise to existential angst.

It produced one of the most splendid historical moments in literature and the arts. Baroque aesthetic concepts are transformed into momentum builders and great contrasts. Baroque literature aims to surprise and impress, and the ideal of the authors is the keenness of wit.

Baroque Lyric Poetry and Literary Movements

Baroque Lyric Poets (17th Century), Culteranismo, and Conceptismo

• Conceptismo: Aims for a dense and complicated content that surprises the reader with wordplay, achieving condensation and meaning.
• Culteranismo:

Garcilaso de la Vega: Renaissance Poetic Essence

Garcilaso de la Vega's work, published posthumously in 1543, is concise yet encapsulates the essence of later Renaissance poetry. His compositions are often imbued with themes of love, featuring lyrical songs and elegies that show a direct influence from classical antiquity. However, it is his Eclogues that represent the pinnacle of his poetic achievement.

The Eclogues: Pastoral Dialogues

An eclogue is a poetic composition where characters, typically shepherds, engage in dialogue, often about love. Garcilaso's Eclogues include:

• Eclogue I: Two shepherds express their disdain and regret over the loss of their loved ones.
• Eclogue II: The only one of the three with significant dramatic action.
• Eclogue

General Features of American Spanish

The Spanish spoken across the Americas, as a whole, exhibits the following common features:

Phonetic Characteristics

• Intonation Variation: Distinct intonation patterns (tone curves) in each region, often attributed to the influence of indigenous substrates.
• Seseo: The pronunciation of the interdental voiceless fricative phoneme /θ/ (as in Peninsular Spanish 'z' or 'c' before 'e', 'i') as a sibilant /s/.
• Aspiration of /s/: Aspiration or loss of syllable-final or word-final /s/ (e.g., 'los' pronounced as 'loh'), a feature also found in some Peninsular Spanish dialects like Extremaduran.
• Rhotic/Lateral Confusion: Confusion or neutralization between the phonemes /r/ and /l/ in syllable-final or word-final positions.

Bécquer's Biography

Two constants dominated the short life of the greatest Spanish lyrical poet of the nineteenth century: poverty and suffering. Gustavo Adolfo Domínguez Bastida was born in Seville, Andalusia, in 1836, to a respectable but financially modest family. His father, José Domínguez Bécquer Isausti, was a painter of some distinction, and his mother, Joaquina Bastida Vargas. Both brothers later adopted the surname Bécquer.

His father died when Gustavo was only five, and four years later, his mother passed away. At eighteen, he moved to Madrid, enduring hardship while writing articles and inconsequential plays. At twenty-one, he contracted tuberculosis.

Later, after attending the Nautical School of San Telmo, he lived with his godmother,... Continue reading "Life and Rhymes of Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer: A Poetic Journey" »

Origins of Castilian Prose

Castilian prose works emerged later than lyrical and Latin epic works. Due to the prestige of cultured men and the abundance of works written in Latin prose, authors, fundamentally religious, did not initially express the need to use Castilian. It was the kings who boosted the use and development of Castilian prose over Latin prose.

Key Figures in Castilian Prose Development

• Fernando III: He abandoned Latin as the administrative and notarial language, making Castilian the kingdom's official language.
• Alfonso X the Wise: He was the driving force behind the School of Translators of Toledo and a huge body of historical and scientific works, which contributed to establishing a written standard for Castilian prose.
• The Primroses: