Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Latin

The Contemporary Novel: Context and Influences

Social and Cultural Transformations

• Advances in technology and science (e.g., automobiles).
• Rapid industrial and urban growth.
• Crisis of Positivism and Rationalism.

Changes in Spain: The 1898 Disaster

• The Disaster of 1898.
• General backwardness of the country.
• Calls for material reforms.

The Generation of '98: Defining Spanish Literature

The term "Generation of '98" designates a group of Spanish writers who began publishing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This name originates from a significant historical event: the Disaster of 1898.

Key Characteristics and Concerns

All these writers shared a common attitude of protest against society and the prevailing state of literature. Among their primary concerns... Continue reading "The Generation of '98: Literary and Historical Context" »

Spain in the 18th Century

Spain was in deep crisis due to the War of the Spanish Succession. Philip V of Bourbon finally took the throne. His reign, along with that of Ferdinand VI, led to greater stability. During the reign of Charles IV, Godoy was prominent, whose poor policies had serious consequences. In this century, Spain experienced an economic upswing. Enlightened reforms sought to improve the economy, promoting the figure of the merchant, but industry remained poor. Society was still based on estates, with a loosely organized bourgeoisie (composed of artisans and merchants), peasants, beggars, slaves, etc. Despite reforms intended to undermine these differences, they persisted. The reforms also focused on education and the economy.... Continue reading "Spanish Literature and History: 18th and 19th Centuries" »

Hindu Literature

Appeared 4,000 years ago and began to be written in the Sanskrit language. This literature is sometimes referred to as "Sanskrit."

Key Characteristics

Had origins in popular sentiment, through which councils sought to answer vital questions, expressing the prevailing mood. Spirituality was a fundamental aspect of its development.

Vedic Period

Literature prior to the 4th century BCE. Its most representative works include The Vedas and the Brahmanas, embodying wisdom and religious principles.

Epic Period

Known for two major epics:

• Mahabharata: A vast epic poem.
• Ramayana: A mythological poem of 24,000 verses divided into seven songs. It describes the journey of Rama to Lanka (Ceylon) against the giant Ravana, who had stolen his wife Sita.

Novel of Tremendism (Novela Tremendista)

This movement uses extreme cruelty and hopelessness as a shock tactic, often politicizing the narrative.

Key Characteristics

• Representative Novel: The Family of Pascual Duarte (Camilo José Cela), an account of prison life.
• Narrator: Autobiographical account, first-person perspective.
• Argument/Situations: Extreme cruelty and violence.
• Characters: Antiheroes, often displaying physical and psychological defects.
• Space: Sordid, pessimistic atmosphere, reflecting the ideological aspects of life.
• Style: Direct language, sometimes profane. Literary resources serve the deformation of reality.

The Existential Novel

The publication of Nada (1945) marked a significant shift in the Spanish novel of the 1940s, foreshadowing... Continue reading "Key Movements in 20th Century Spanish Fiction" »

The Roman Monarchy

Roman kings were advised by patricians. Key figures include:

• Romulus: Creator of the Senate and the first laws.
• Numa Pompilius: Pious and peace-loving, he introduced the lunar calendar and the Vestal Virgins.
• Tullus Hostilius: Led military campaigns to prevail upon their neighbors; he conquered Alba Longa and transferred its population to Rome.
• Ancus Marcius: Extended the limits of the city.
• Tarquinius Priscus: The start of the Etruscan dynasty, he brought changes in social policy and economic activity. Major public works in Rome were initiated, such as the Cloaca Maxima, Circus Maximus, and the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter.
• Servius Tullius: Prepared a census of citizens, assigned civil and military functions to social classes,

Rafael Alberti

Born in Puerto de Santa María, Alberti later moved to Madrid with his family. His first poems blended avant-garde styles with traditional lyricism and echoes of Bécquer. In 1925, he received the National Literature Award for Marinero en tierra. A profound emotional crisis in 1927 led him to María Teresa León, with whom he lived until returning to Spain in 1977, where he eventually passed away. Alberti explored diverse themes and poetic forms throughout his career. His poetry reflects his life experiences, focusing on:

• Nostalgia for a lost paradise
• Anxiety caused by the loss of this paradise
• Social commentary

Alberti's poetry is characterized by vivid imagery, musicality, and rich connotations. His poetic trajectory can be divided... Continue reading "Two Giants of Spanish Poetry: Alberti and Cernuda" »

The Episodios Nacionales (National Episodes)

This collection consists of forty-six relatively short novels, divided into five series. They were intended to chronicle the historical novel of much of the nineteenth century.

Galdós mixes fictional characters with historical figures, important political and military events of the day, and private lives, thus achieving the recreation of great battles and historical moments. Key characteristics include:

• Rigorous Documentation: History is recreated using a personal approach to the facts, but based on rigorous documentation.
• Narrative Style: While the style is sometimes considered neglected, the narrative remains vivid and lively.

Early Works: The Thesis Novels

These first novels are known as the Thesis... Continue reading "Benito Pérez Galdós: Novel Categories and Masterpieces" »

Courtly Literature and Folk Poetry

Courtly literature reflects the noble class undergoing a profound transformation of its customs and procedures. Around the king and great literary masters, a new ideal emerges, anticipating the Renaissance perfect gentleman. There is a strong relationship between literature and courtly life.

Court Poetry

Court poetry served as learned counsel for the minority at court and was collected in songbooks and poetry anthologies, showcasing the works of numerous authors. The influence of Provencal troubadour literature led to the development of courtly love poetry. Moral didactic poetry, also inspired by love, addressed lofty themes with a solemn and sententious tone.

Italian Renaissance Influence

Echoes of the great Italian... Continue reading "Courtly Literature and Traditional Folk Poetry: A Study" »

Spanish Theater: Post-War to Contemporary Eras

In Europe, including renovated theater (like the theater of the absurd), and in Spain, conventional theater flourished.

1. Post-War Theater: High Comedy

This theater depicts characters, often from the middle class, without significant economic problems. Topics include love, infidelity, and parent-child conflicts, all presented with a comedic tone. Notable playwrights include:

• José María Pemán
• Joaquín Calvo Sotelo

2. Renewed Humor Theater

This genre is based on the improbable and the absurd, often critically engaging with bourgeois conventions through its language. Key figures:

• Enrique Jardiel Poncela

  His works delve into timeless conflicts, often using characters as a stage for the absurd. His humor

Plato's Philosophy: Soul, State, and Knowledge

The Tripartite Soul and Virtues

The rational soul's purpose is to serve the noble. Its virtue is prudence, which corresponds to reason. This rational part should rule over the others, leading to justice. Justice is the harmony between the three parts of the soul.

Plato's Critique of Democracy

In the Republic, Plato critiques democracy and the sophists, who teach politicians to flatter the populace and govern by the whim of the masses.

The Myth of Metals (Classes)

Plato posits that people are born with different "metals" in their souls – gold, silver, or bronze – determining their natural class:

• Producers (Bronze/Iron): Predominantly driven by the appetitive soul. Their virtue is temperance and self-