Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Language

Consistency in Text

Consistency is an inherent property of all text, which is the ability to form a unified whole in which the parts remain locked to each other in content. In other words, a text is coherent:

1. When presented with a meaningful unity or sense, be seen from the existence of a clear and specific topic (global or thematic coherence).
2. When the component parts are not isolated but are connected to each other, forming a structure (linear or structural coherence).
3. When the successive statements convey ideas or judgments that do not violate the basic principles of logic, common sense, or universal standards of human development (local coherence).

Global Consistency

All information contained in a text is built around a core sheet or issue closely... Continue reading "Understanding Text Consistency: Global, Linear, and Local" »

Word Formation: Morphology

Morphology is the science that studies the form of words. It defines and describes their units, which are the word, the root, the base, and the morpheme. The morpheme is the least significant morphological constituent of a word. Grammatical affixes are bound morphemes attached to a lexical base. Inflectional morphology deals with the grammatical accidents of variable words, manifested through inflections.

Normal flexion includes changes of nouns and adjectives to express gender and number. Verbs can be regular or irregular; the former have an unchanged base and the latter have variations in the root or allomorphy. The vocalic theme, along with the lexical base, is the verb stem. The characteristic aspect expresses the... Continue reading "Word Formation and Sentence Structure in Linguistics" »

Metaphor

A metaphor establishes a similarity between two terms based on a shared characteristic or quality. It's a way of talking about something in two ways. In poetic metaphors, this characteristic is emphasized to say the same thing but more beautifully.

Examples of Metaphors:

• Your eyes are two stars (meaning your eyes are bright or illuminated).
• Your hair is golden (blonde hair).

Example of a Text Full of Metaphors:

His eyes, like rivers after the rain, expressed not only sadness, but vengeance also, like lava poured from the tip of an erupting volcano. Those tears, breaking like glass as they touched the ground, were not worth it. It was from anger and the rage of impotence, the same powerlessness a child feels when an adult steals their candy,... Continue reading "Literary Devices and Figures of Speech" »

Characteristics of Spanish Baroque Theater

• Combines tragic and comic elements.
• Shows little respect for the rule of three unities (action, time, space).
• Characters are often simple archetypes: protagonist, antagonist, lover, servant, comic relief, etc.
• The main plot is driven by love and honor, closely linked. In Baroque theater, characters may kill to defend their honor, considered a person's greatest asset—individually, within the family, and in society.
• Follows a simple three-act structure (beginning, middle, and end).
• Employs stanzas of verse.
• Performances were accompanied by music and dance.
• Features a wide variety of themes: love, religion, history, legends, etc.

Capitalization Rules

• Names, surnames, nicknames, and aliases are capitalized.
• Names

Sociolect Concept

Sociolect Concept: Linguistic diversity may arise from the distribution of speakers as a function of belonging to certain groups or social strata. In other words, it is the way a language is used within a particular social stratum of the linguistic community.

Factors Influencing Sociolects

• Sex: Differences in education, employment, or social norms can lead to variations in the speech of men and women.
• Age: Younger people are often more innovative and less systematic in their language use, while more mature individuals tend to adhere to established norms. Older individuals may use archaic language.
• Environment: The rural environment can influence language use, to the point where city slang may emerge as a way for speakers in large

Poetry: An Expression of Beauty

Poetry is the expression of beauty or aesthetic feeling through words, whether in verse or prose. We understand verse as subject to words and cadence or rhythm, while prose is the structure or form that language naturally takes to express concepts, not subject to the same cadence as verse. The rhythmic art of combining words is not the only thing that distinguishes poetry from narrative.

This combination is what we call rhyme, the matching of final syllables in subsequent or alternate verses. There are two types of rhymes:

• Consonant rhyme: When all the letters of the last syllable agree on two or more subsequent lines.
• Assonance rhyme: When only the vowels match.

We can classify poetry into three categories:

1. Epic poetry

1. Concept of Communication

a) Value

b) Transmission through a Code of Signals

c) Sending a Message

Sending a message from a sender to a receiver in a code of signs. Communication is impossible without a code.

Difference between Signal and Sign:

• Signal is a hereditary reflection, not learned. It is the physical manifestation itself.
• Signs are universal units of communication and are purely physical, while a sign is of psychophysical nature, i.e., a signal containing conscious content intended to be understood, not just to trigger a response.

2. Do Animals Have Language?

No, because we define language as a sign communication system used exclusively by humans. Therefore, language is foreign to animals. Moreover, the power to create and use sign systems... Continue reading "Understanding Communication: Signs, Signals, and Language" »

• Talk: A meeting where a speaker provides information and communicates with the audience.
  • Objective: To inform people and create a mental connection.
  • Information is informal and cannot be read.
  • Talks should not last more than one hour.
  • The speaker can ask the public questions, and vice versa.
  • Only one person can participate in a talk as the speaker.
  • The audience can ask questions during a talk.
  • The presenter of a talk can be introduced or follow a specific order.
• Conference: A gathering of people who listen to and face the information others provide.
• Address: An oral argument, persuasive to some extent, addressed to an audience or one person.
  • An address cannot be written as it is an oral presentation that targets the public.
• Interview:
  • The purpose of an

Comparing Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment and Poor People

The relationship between Fyodor Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment (1866) and Poor People (1846) lies in the profound realism with which the characters are depicted. Both works feature characters living in poverty. Dostoevsky highlights the circumstances of living in poverty, creating settings marked by the characters' impoverished status, which significantly influences their actions.

In both novels, the idea of love often functions as a moral imperative. In some cases, characters feel morally obliged to make decisions that shape the narrative. Although Poor People is not a tragedy like Crime and Punishment, it reveals themes that haunted the author from his youth. There is a clear difference... Continue reading "Literary Connections: Dostoevsky and Kafka" »

Substantive Clauses

Substantive clauses can function as the main verb. They can often be substituted by "what."

Example: "I told him to come right away."

Substantive Complement Indirect (CI)

Functions as the verb of the main proposition. Can be pronominalized (le).

Example: "Give this letter to whoever is reading."

Substantive Direct Complement (DC)

Functions as the verb of the main proposition.

Example: "He did it without anyone knowing."

Substantive of Prepositional Phrase (C. Scheme)

Functions as a complement of the verb in the main proposition. It is often preceded by a preposition, with or without a following conjunction.

Example: "Trust those who care about you."

Substantive of Attribute

Functions as an attribute in the main proposition, typically... Continue reading "Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial Clauses" »