Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Language

Linguistic Sign Characteristics

The following are key characteristics of linguistic signs:

1. Solidarity: The signifier (sgte) and signified (Sgdo) mutually require each other. A string without an associated Sgdo is not a linguistic sign. Conversely, a Sgdo cannot exist without a sgte. They are interdependent.
2. Arbitrariness: The connection between a signifier and its signified is unmotivated and based on agreement among users. The sequence of sounds forming the sgte has no inherent relation to the concept it evokes. Therefore, an alternative sgte could have been chosen.
3. Articulated: Linguistic signs are composed of smaller units and are divisible. Martinet described this as a double articulation:
   • Units of the 1st articulation: Signs can be divided

Mariano José de Larra: Critical Writings

His newspaper articles are classified into three groups:

• Articles of Manners: These criticized the backward and uncivilized Spanish society of his time. He defended Europeanization and the country's modernization, with French society as a model. Larra intended to help reform these customs.
• Political Articles: These harshly attacked the Carlists and also the moderate-leaning liberal governments.
• Literary Criticism: These items are comments on various literary works. As an author, he is Romantic, but as a critic, he is eclectic. He has a direct and uncomplicated style, though with very careful language. He uses stories inspired by everyday life as examples for his theses, develops small essays, uses irony,

Expressions of Opinion

When expressing opinions, use phrases like "In my opinion" or "My point of view," or first-person verbs such as "I believe" or "I think."

Argumentation

Opinions should be supported by arguments. Use causal conjunctions like "It seems inappropriate because..." or "Because..."

Arguments can be strengthened with adjectives that express an evaluation of reality.

The Verb Phrase

The verb phrase acts as the predicate of a sentence, and its core is a verb.

Verbs indicate actions (studying, running, laughing) or states (being, seeming) and express time.

• Verbal moods include indicative, subjunctive, and imperative.

Clarín's Stories

Clarín, the pseudonym of Leopoldo Alas, wrote the novel The Judge's Wife.

He also authored articles set in... Continue reading "Spanish Literature & Language" »

Fundamental Linguistic Concepts

Understanding Syllables and Vowel Combinations

The Syllable

The syllable is a set of sounds produced in a single stroke of the voice.

The Diphthong

The diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable.

The Triphthong

The triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable.

The Hiatus

The hiatus occurs when two contiguous vowels are pronounced in different syllables.

Accentuation and Word Structure

The Accent

The accent is the element that distinguishes the stressed syllable from unstressed ones. Depending on the position of the accent, words can be classified as oxytone (sharp), paroxytone (flat), or proparoxytone (antepenultimate).

Words

Words are sets of sounds endowed with meaning.

Variable words are those that support... Continue reading "Essential Grammar and Literary Definitions" »

Program Review Essentials

Importance of Program Reviews

Its significance lies in conducting a proper program review. This process can be improved for better efficiency, enabling administrators to implement systems simply and ensuring users have minimal questions during use.

Review Committee: Functions and Structure

As the name suggests, a review committee's functions involve conscientiously examining every part of a program. This ensures all instructions are properly documented in both the administration and user manuals. Its structure is as follows:

• At least one person acting as a system administrator to install, configure, test, and, if necessary, perform required maintenance.
• One or two individuals who will attempt to use the program and its services,

Federico Garcia Lorca - Sin City Dream

Topic: Lorca describes a New York night, focusing on the city's skyscrapers, which he finds monstrous and unfamiliar. This perception characterizes Lorca's tendency to anthropomorphize buildings, blurring the lines between the built environment and the animal world. The poem highlights the dehumanization prevalent in the city that never sleeps, where constant activity and a sense of modernity lead to a monotonous existence, with residents seemingly waiting for death without hope. The subtitle, 'Night of Brooklyn Bridge,' reinforces the theme of a sad city devoid of rest.

Metrics

The poem is written in free verse, with rhythm achieved through repetition of ideas, words, and sentence structures (e.g., 'whip!... Continue reading "Analysis of Lorca's 'Sin City Dream' and Salinas' 'The Soul Had'" »

Verb Conjugation: Regular and Irregular Forms

Conjugation refers to all the forms a verb can take, encompassing all tenses and moods.

Regular Verbs

Regular verbs maintain the same root in all forms and use the same endings as their model verb.

Example:

• Singing ........ cant-o ......... cant-é ......... é sing ....

Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs do not maintain the same root in all forms and do not use the same endings as their model verb.

Example:

• Be ..... est-o ..... est-uve .... ....... be-é

Propositions and Coordinated Clauses

Coordinated propositions are at the same syntactic level; none depends on the others. They can become independent clauses if the connecting links are removed. Coordinated clauses can be of several types:

• Copulative: Express

1. Item

This paper focuses on...

2. Thesis

The author's central thesis posits that...

3. Summary

This paper aims to convey... (Provide specific details in five lines or less.)

4. Organizational Scheme

The text's structure can be characterized as: Analyisand: The thesis is presented initially, followed by explanations, expansions, and refutations of counter-arguments. Inductive: Progresses from concrete examples to abstract ideas, culminating in the central thesis. Parallel: All ideas hold equal importance. Framed: The central idea bookends the text. Circular: The text consistently revolves around the central idea.

5. Location of Main Ideas

The main idea is primarily located...

6. Paragraph Descriptions

(Provide descriptions for each paragraph.)

7. Author'

Understanding the Communicative Act

The communicative act is a deliberate and complex process between a speaker (transmitter) and a listener (receiver). It involves establishing contact within a context of a communicative purpose, determined by space-time coordinates.

The Theme

The theme is the central idea within the text, the assumed topic of conversation.

The Intent

The intent is the purpose that gives rise to the communicative act. Purposes are many and varied, including informing, influencing, regulating social life, and congratulating someone. They are classified as subjective or objective. The speaker's distance or participation determines the degree of subjectivity or objectivity.

The Channel

The channel is the medium for transmitting the... Continue reading "Understanding the Communicative Act and Linguistic Variation" »

Modality in Textual Analysis

Understanding Modals

Modality reveals the sender's presence in a text. This presence is conveyed through various linguistic elements known as modals. Modals imbue texts with subjectivity, a characteristic often found in argumentative discourse.

Key Modal Elements

• Sentence Modality and Communicative Function
• Evaluative Lexicon
• Figures of Speech
• Punctuation
• Theming

1. Sentence Modality and Communicative Function

Sentence and communication patterns reflect the sender's attitude toward the statement and their intended effect on the recipient. These patterns include:

• Affirmative or Negative
• Question (?)
• Exclamation (!)
• Doubtful (e.g., Maybe)
• Desire (e.g., Hopefully)
• Imperative

2. Evaluative Lexicon

• Evaluative Adjectives: Adjectives with