Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The head of state is the chief public representative of the state. It  is also a symbol of the nation-state. The head of gov leads the day-to-day operations of government.

In Britain, the head of state is the queen. The head of gov is the Prime Minister.

In Iran, the head of state is the supreme leader. The head of gov is the President.

In Iran, the supreme leader has the ultimate decision-making authority and is the final interpreter of shar’ia in Iran. The president is primarily responsible for the day-today operations. In Britain, the queen is merely a symbol of national unity and prestige. The monarch’s relationship with the prime minister is mostly informal and diplomatic interaction with limited political implications

In Britain, Parliament

The Restoration of Absolutism: The countries that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna.

Ideas: Restoring absolutism with legitimism in France and Spain to stop liberalism and nationalism. Balance of powers between European countries. The Holy Alliance Treaty with Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and the Quadruple Alliance with the previous countries plus Britain.

Revolutions in 1830: Nationalism and liberalism became popular. The revolution started in France where Charles, an absolute monarch, was replaced by Louis Philippe of Orleans as a constitutional monarch.

The Spring of Nations: The unification of Italy and Germany, and the independence of the Russian, Ottoman, and Austrian empires. There were revolts, the most important ones in... Continue reading "The Restoration of Absolutism and the Rise of Nationalism: Congress of Vienna and Revolutions in Europe" »

The Genesis of Basque Nationalism: Sabino Arana's Vision

The foundational text of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) was penned by Sabino Arana, articulating his distinct political ideology. His core tenets included:

• Bizkaia's Catholic Identity: A vision for Bizkaia as a Catholic, Roman Apostolic state.
• Bizkaia's Independence: Advocacy for Bizkaia as an independent state.
• Church-State Relationship: While acknowledging the state's belonging to the church, Arana proposed a separation between state and church, yet believed laws should align with Catholic doctrine.
• Federal Basque State: A unified, independent federal state comprising three Basque provinces, bound by shared race, faith, personality, and customs.

Historical Context: Post-Carlist War Bizkaia

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

One of these liberal coups, headed by Colonel Riego, succeeded in taking power. Ferdinand VII was forced to reinstate the Constitution of 1812 and the liberal legislation.

The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Ferdinand asked for help from the Holy Alliance, which sent an army, the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, to restore the absolute monarchy in Spain. The King faced many problems in this period:

• Independence of the Spanish American colonies
• State bankruptcy, due to the high level of debt during the War of Independence and the lack of income.
• The succession problem owing to a lack of a male descendant. Ferdinand issued the Pragmatic Sanction that repealed the Salic Law, by which women were not allowed to reign.

The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

Early Encounters and Exploration

In 1518, a disturbing report reached the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán: white-faced men were approaching from the sea. King Moctezuma, filled with dismay, wondered if these strangers could be the returning god Quetzalcóatl.

These men were part of an expedition led by Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velásquez, the governor of Cuba, to explore the coasts discovered by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Grijalva's expedition traded gold with the Aztecs, confirming the existence of a wealthy kingdom.

Hernán Cortés and the March to Tenochtitlán

Velásquez, eager to conquer this new land, chose Hernán Cortés to lead a third expedition. Cortés, a skilled soldier and strategist,... Continue reading "The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire: A Pivotal Moment in History" »

The Russian Hero

It was a winter day. A young man named Ralph Muller, 15 years old, who lived in Russia, had been enlisted to join the army, but he did not pass the tests and could not enlist.

From that day, Ralph did not stop training. He spent three years preparing and returned to try to enlist. This time he got in. Ralph was the best and began to fight in minor wars until they sent him to fight against Hitler's Germany.

Ralph and a gigantic army of Russians went to Germany. It was night, and the next day they planned to attack the German troops. When day arrived, the Russians woke up. They knew where the German ranks were and they wanted to surround them. To do that, they had to go through the mountains until one of the Russian military officers... Continue reading "Ralph Muller: A Russian Soldier's Bravery Against Hitler" »

The Influence of Kaiser Wilhelm I and World War I on the Weimar Republic

Kaiser Wilhelm I and the German Government During WWI

During the First World War (1914-1918), Germany was ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm I, who held significant control over the government and the military.

• The Kaiser appointed the Chancellor, ensuring his influence over government decisions.
• Despite having the right to vote, the German people had limited political power as Members of Parliament (MPs) lacked substantial authority.
• The Kaiser prioritized military strength, investing heavily in the army and accumulating debt to finance the war effort.
• The German population generally supported this form of government, valuing military tradition and perceiving strong leadership as a sign

Reform in the Soviet Union

The Collapse of the Eastern Bloc

The Dissolution of

The Liberation of South America

The Latin American independence movement was a significant struggle, often compared to the American Revolution. While both events shared similarities, key differences also existed.

Similarities:

• Both were led by well-educated elites.
• Both aimed to overthrow the rule of a mother country.
• Both were large-scale civil wars.
• Both benefited from foreign assistance.

Differences:

• Unlike the American Revolution, the Latin American struggle lacked a unified direction or strategy due to vast distances, geographical obstacles, and economic and cultural isolation between countries.
• Latin American countries faced prolonged struggles against Spain's power and numerous internal and external challenges.

The struggle for independence had... Continue reading "Simón Bolívar and the Liberation of South America" »

Document Analysis: Prim Sour

Type: Article, propaganda text, and narrative/content, socio-political text.

Author: Socialists, their Bulletin La Lucha de Clases, published by socialist committees of Bilbao, Gallarta, and Ortuella (inspired by Facundo Perezagua). Introduction: La lucha de clases.

Addressed: Workers of Bizkaia (miners), but also the Government (public text).

Objective: Denounce the working conditions of miners and call for mobilization.

Location and Date: Period of the process of industrialization in Bizkaia (1896), accumulation of capital by the bourgeoisie, poor living and working conditions for workers, leading to the beginning of the labor movement.

Main Idea: Denounce the working conditions of miners and call for mobilization.... Continue reading "Miners' Struggle in Bizkaia: 1896 Industrialization" »