Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The War in Morocco: Development and Consequences

The Origins of Spanish Military Presence in North Africa

The origin of the Spanish military presence in North Africa can be traced back to the Franco-British agreements of 1904. Spanish colonial intervention in the Maghreb was the outcome of the game of alliances and competing interests between Britain and France.

• Britain wished, for geostrategic and economic reasons, to maintain control of the Strait of Gibraltar.
• France sought to extend its domination over the Maghreb, securing and expanding its position in Algeria.

The signing of the Anglo-French agreements of 1904 meant the resolution of old colonial diplomatic differences. According to this commitment, the English government would support the... Continue reading "Spanish Military Presence in Morocco: 1904-1923" »

Causes of World War I (1914-1918)

Colonialism and Nationalism

• Rivalry Between Colonial Powers: Conflicts stemming from imperial rivalries were particularly evident in Morocco (1905-1911). Germany, which had few colonies in the area, sought to challenge the influence of France and Great Britain. These tensions, while not directly triggering the war, remained latent and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
• Nationalist Exaltation: The Franco-Prussian War (1871) resulted in France's defeat and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. This fueled French nationalism and a desire for revenge. Both nations sought to establish continental hegemony in Europe. Germany and Great Britain also maintained a fierce rivalry for control of international

**Development of the Spanish War of Independence**

The French occupation, along with other circumstances, caused a popular uprising in the streets of Madrid, brutally repressed by the French. This episode marked the beginning of the War of Independence.

Coronation of José I and the Bayonne Assembly

To prevent further revolts, Joachim Murat persuaded the Council of Castile, Madrid City Council, and the Governing Board to support the coronation of the new monarch, José I, brother of Napoleon. Thus, an assembly was convened in Bayonne for José I to take his oath as king and to make proposals for a charter (a granted charter), drawn up by Napoleon. This charter stated that the executive power would be in the hands of the king. Moreover, it declared... Continue reading "Spanish War of Independence: Causes and Key Events" »

The Second Republic in Peacetime (1931-1936)

The young Second Republic was born into a challenging international context, marked by adverse economic and political conditions. The global economic crisis, triggered by the 1929 crash, was in full swing, and the democratic model was declining in Europe. Austria had a *para-fascist* government, Germany was on the verge of being ruled by Adolf Hitler, and Mussolini's Italy was already firmly established. In short, European society in the 1930s witnessed a growing polarization between fascism and socialism.

Key Periods of the Republic

• The Provisional Government (1931)
• The "Reformist Biennium": A period of left-wing political reforms.
• The "Red Biennium": A period marked by the CEDA government, aiming to

Christian Kingdoms: Regional Development

Upon the death of Sancho el Mayor of Pamplona, his son Fernando I received and took the title of King of Castile and León, defeating Bermuda III, the monarch of Tamara, and annexing their domains. After facing his brother García de Pamplona, he occupied territories in western Vizcaya and Álava.

From the 11th century, the progress of the northern kingdoms to the south intensified. The border of the Duero was overcome, and the troops of Fernando I conquered Coimbra. Pilgrimages through the Camino de Santiago introduced lifestyles and cultural manifestations from beyond the Pyrenees.

Division and Consolidation of Power

Fernando I's will divided his dominions between his sons: Alfonso VI received León, Sancho... Continue reading "Christian Kingdoms in Spain: Regional Development & Expansion" »

Item 6: The First World War

The Quick War: 1914

Germany quickly took the initiative in the war to implement its plan of attack, the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was to throw the army into France through two neutral countries (Belgium and Luxembourg), thus avoiding the iron French defenses along the common border, and could surprise the French army. Meanwhile, the Austro-Hungarian and German side would slow the Russians, taking advantage of the expected slow mobilization. Once France was defeated, all German forces would be launched on Russia, attacking first the Western Front and then the East.

But something went wrong with this plan. In the first phase of the campaign against France, the Allies managed to retreat in a certain order. And... Continue reading "World War I: From Schlieffen Plan to Trench Warfare" »

The Middle East Conflict and Cold War Context

The proclamation of the State of Israel in 1948 led to the first war with Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon, who did not accept the existence of Israel at the expense of Palestine. This period saw the founding of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).

Key Arab-Israeli Wars

The Second Arab-Israeli War (1956) occurred during the Suez Crisis, following an Israeli attack on Egypt. The Third Arab-Israeli War (1967), known as the Six-Day War, involved Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israel responded rapidly with its troops under the command of Moshe Dayan. The Fourth Arab-Israeli War (1973) broke out during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, hence its name, the Yom Kippur War. Egypt and Syria launched a surprise... Continue reading "Middle East Conflicts and Cold War Military Alignments" »

The Russian Empire: Autocracy, Modernization, and Upheaval (1613-1917)

The Russian Empire, ruled by the Tsar or emperor, was an autocratic state governed by divine right. From 1613 to 1917, this vast empire covered approximately one-sixth of the planet's landmass. The Tsar held absolute power, including the authority to appoint or depose ministers and provincial governors at will.

A symbol of Russia's ambition and scale was the Trans-Siberian Railway, stretching 6,000 miles from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Similar to European industrialization, Russia's modernization efforts were largely funded by its workers and peasants, whose difficult situation sharply contrasted with that of the landowners.

In urban centers, industrialization... Continue reading "Russia's Imperial Era: Autocracy, Modernization, and Upheaval" »

The French Revolution

The French Revolution: In 1789, King Louis XVI convened the assembly to announce new taxes to improve the economy. However, the privileged refused to renounce their advantages. Before 1789, members of the Third Estate proclaimed a National Assembly, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

1st Stage: Moderate Revolution (1789-1792)

Louis XVI sent troops to Paris, triggering a reaction from the people who stormed the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal power.

2nd Stage: Republic and Reign of Terror (1792-1795)

In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France, aiming to restore the Ancien Régime. The radical Jacobins, supported by the people of Paris, seized power, abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the Republic.... Continue reading "French Revolution & Napoleonic Era: Key Events & Timeline" »

1. Economic Policies

What are economic policies? Strategies or packages designed by governments regarding the economic driving of their country.

2. Administrative Policy Organization

Based on an administrative policy, an organization composed of various local authorities with some capacity for self-government, but dependent on the central government for main functions, is referred to as:

3. Mercantilism

"Colbert only seeks that the French are able to dispense with all other peoples (...) One of the main causes of the shortage of money in France, in the midst of such plenty of corn and wine, comes from the Dutchmen no longer seeking them, as they did in the past, because our conduct with regard to trade with them clearly shows that we do not want