Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

3. Independence of the American Colonies (1808-1826) In the initial decades of the nineteenth century, the independence of most of the American colonies was achieved. This process helped to accelerate the economic and political prestige of the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. Causes of Independence: In the early nineteenth century, unrest in the colonies that had persisted for decades erupted in the form of wars of independence. Several factors contributed to this: 1. The spread of enlightened ideas and the principles of freedom and equality promoted by the French Revolution. 2. The success of the revolt of the British colonies in North America, which culminated in the proclamation of U.S. independence in 1776. 3. The discontent of the local bourgeoisie

Following the Napoleonic Wars, the Germanic Confederation was established in 1815, comprising more than thirty states. Among these, the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the most prominent. Both states also held significant territories outside the Confederation's borders. The Kingdom of Denmark, for its part, included a region (Holstein) within the Confederation.

Most of the population within the Confederation shared a cultural link: language. However, a significant portion of the Confederation's population did not speak German. Conversely, German-speaking populations existed in other parts of Europe. The Revolution of 1848 failed to achieve unification among the various German states and address the concerns of non-German minorities.... Continue reading "The Unification of Germany: Bismarck's Path to Empire" »

The First World War

The First World War (1914-1918) was the most serious international conflict that the world had experienced at the time. Countries on different continents entered the combat. In 1918, the fighting stopped, and peace negotiations began. The first peace treaty was signed in 1919. Known at the time as the "Great War," all countries tried to create a network of alliances that would prepare them for war. The war began with the assassination of the heir of Austria. Heads of state of countries were prime.

The Moroccan Crisis

There were several conflicts in the early twentieth century, including the Agadir incident. Agadir was a port town with a natural interest to many powers. Germany claimed that that aspect, rather than being only... Continue reading "Causes and Consequences of World War I: Treaties" »

Unit 1: The Old Regime and the Enlightenment

The Old Regime

Old Regime was the name given by French revolutionaries to the era before the 1789 revolution. Later, historians used this term to describe the political, economic, and social characteristics of Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries.

Enlightened Despotism

In the second half of the 18th century, some kings tried to reconcile absolutism with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment. Thus emerged Enlightened Despotism, a form of government outlined in the principle "all for the people, but without the people." In it, the monarch continued to concentrate all powers, but was considered the first servant of the state, carrying out certain reforms to achieve progress and happiness of his... Continue reading "Old Regime & Enlightenment: Europe (15th-18th Centuries)" »

The American Revolution: Birth of a Nation

The creation of the United States broke radically with monarchical traditions. It began with the rebellion of the 13 colonies against taxes imposed by Great Britain. GB sent troops, initiating a war between the colonies and the metropolis (1775). In 1776, the colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence. The war, with support from France and Spain, ended in 1783 with American independence.

The new nation, called the United States of America, had several novelties:

• The Declaration of Rights, adopted by the State of Virginia, affirmed natural rights inherent in every person.
• It established a fundamental law, or Constitution (1787), mandating that all political positions be elected periodically.
• The political

Peace Treaties After World War I

The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to take responsibility for the war. Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France and consented to the occupation of the Saarland. East Prussia was cut off by the Danzig corridor. Germany delivered its colonies, accepted the demilitarization of the Rhineland, and reduced its army and arsenals.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved, and Czechoslovakia was formed. Italy made only small territorial gains. Romania grew with territories from Hungary and Russia. Hungary and Austria were reduced to small, landlocked states. Bulgaria had to surrender its Aegean coast to Greece. The Ottoman Empire disappeared and was replaced by a republic. Its Arab territories were given as mandates.... Continue reading "Aftermath of World War I: Treaties, Economic Shifts & Social Change" »

The Stalinist totalitarian state's territorial expansion, along with German, Italian, and Japanese expansionism, and the anti-Comintern pact, provoked the rupture of democratic nations (Britain and France). The implementation of a policy of appeasement and the formation of the Axis (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo) through cooperation agreements in 1936 set the stage for conflict. Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering the war.

The War's Phases

Phase 1

Germany quickly conquered Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France using blitzkrieg tactics. Hitler's attempt to invade England failed in the Battle of Britain. Germany then pressured Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Slovakia to join the Axis. In 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia and... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Key Events, and Consequences" »

The End of World War II

European Front: Allied Victory

The balance of forces broke, and the Germans were forced into a continuous retreat. The final Allied offensive took place on several fronts, leading to the collapse of the Axis powers in Europe.

Fall of Italy and Mussolini's Ousting

The fall of Italy began with Anglo-American landings in North Africa. Allied forces then landed in Sicily, leading to significant political upheaval. Benito Mussolini was ousted from power, and King Victor Emmanuel III formed a new government, placing Mussolini under arrest. Peace negotiations commenced as German troops retreated from Allied advances, culminating in Italy's capitulation in 1943, though fighting continued on Italian soil until 1945.

Eastern Front:

The Cuban Revolution

In the mid-twentieth century, Cuba was ruled by Fulgencio Batista, who was supported by the U.S. Batista tried to diversify the Cuban economy, which was based on the production and exportation of sugar, with the construction of public works and tourism development. The corruption of the scheme produced a movement of opposition led by Fidel Castro. Castro and his followers launched a guerrilla war against Batista. In 1959, Batista fled, and Castro and his troops entered Havana.

Castro's Domestic Policy

Castro's domestic policy was based on the imposition of a communist state modeled on the USSR.

Economy

In the economy, measures were taken such as the collectivization of land and the nationalization of banks. Cuba's economy became... Continue reading "Cuban and Asian Communist Revolutions: A Historical Analysis" »

San Pietro in Montorio: Bramante's Masterpiece

Commission and Location

The Catholic Kings commissioned Bramante to prepare this work, intended to commemorate and mark the place where, according to tradition, Saint Peter was crucified. The temple, known as the Tempietto, is located in the cloister of a Franciscan convent on Gianicolo Hill in Rome. Its construction began in 1502.

The Architect: Bramante

Bramante's formation combined influences from both Brunelleschi and the architecture of Northern Italy. His work in Milan for the Sforza family defined his style until his move to Rome in 1499, where he came into direct contact with the great buildings of antiquity.

Formal Analysis

The building has a central plan, and all design follows a circular form.... Continue reading "Bramante's Tempietto: A Renaissance Masterpiece" »