Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Military Development of the War

General Franco was appointed to lead the Moroccan troops from the Canary Islands. Transporting these troops to the mainland presented a significant challenge, ultimately achieved with German and Italian air support. Once across the Strait, rebel forces advanced through Extremadura towards Madrid via the Tagus Valley. The capital's resistance in the ensuing battle shattered the rebels' hopes of a swift victory.

Key Military Campaigns

• The Northern Campaign: Rebel troops captured Bilbao, Santander, and Asturias. This campaign included the internationally infamous bombing of Guernica-Lumo. General Mola was killed during this offensive.
• The Battle of Teruel: This battle witnessed some of the fiercest fighting of the

1. Absolutism and Mercantilism

Absolutism was based on mercantilism, the economic system driven primarily by Louis XIV's finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert. He advocated for three major ideas:

• Accumulate precious metals
• Develop foreign trade
• Encourage the role of the state

2. The American Revolution: Foreign Aid

The American army, led by George Washington, was aided by foreign powers, most notably:

• France
• Spain

3. Thomas Hobbes and the Leviathan

The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued in his work *Leviathan* for:

Unlimited absolute sovereign power to ensure peace and coexistence within the state.

4. Powers of the Absolute Monarch

The monarch held absolute power over several aspects, including:

• Control over entities external to the Crown:

The Bourbon Restoration

The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII, son of Isabella II, was the result of a political process. Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, Conservative Party leader, orchestrated Isabella's abdication and Alfonso's acceptance of the throne after promising a constitutional government.

The Restored Political System

The political system of the Restoration rested on two pillars: the Constitution of 1876 and the turnismo, or alternation in power, of two major political parties. The Conservatives, led by Cánovas del Castillo, were heirs to the Moderates, while the Liberals, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, descended from the Progressives.

The Constitution of 1876 was moderate yet flexible, allowing parties to govern... Continue reading "Spain: Bourbon Restoration, Crisis, and the Rise of the Republic" »

Mantecadas

A ball made of butter and other ingredients.

Cruise

Monumental stone cross at the crossroads.

Mergulheira

A person who is on a pilgrimage.

San Andres

Figurines of bread painted with colors.

Senteira

The person who sells photos of saints.

Rosquillas

Sweet with a rounded hole.

Devotee

Someone who feels admiration for something or someone.

Candela

Part of wax with wicks inside.

Exvoto

Object of wax placed in a shrine with a vote.

Sanctuary

Temple to venerate, which is the holy center of pilgrimage.

Stallion

Horse leader.

Horsehair

The horse's hair.

Greas

Flock.

Colt

Offspring of a horse.

Curro

Closed area where the horses are grouped.

Rapa

A haircut.

Scan

Garbage.

Intendant

Alderman.

Plaza de Abastos

Market.

Consistory

County.

Suburb

Neighborhood.

Patterns

List of inhabitants... Continue reading "Glossary of Terms: Galician Traditions and Language" »

History of the European Union

Post-War Cooperation and Early Treaties

In December 1947, during the Cold War, initial steps toward European integration were taken. A series of partnerships culminated in the Congress of Europe in May 1948, which advocated for political and economic union, a consultative assembly, and a European court of human rights. In January 1949, the United Kingdom, France, and the Benelux countries formed a union, establishing the Council of Europe.

On October 23, 1957, the Western European Union was created in Paris by the Benelux countries, France, Italy, and West Germany. Its goal was to coordinate economic, cultural, and military policy.

Forms of Economic Integration

• Free Trade Area: Complete elimination of tariff and

Stalinization: Death Brings Relaxation

A communist named Stalin died. Khrushchev assumed power. The USSR became a paternalistic and bureaucratic system. It assumed a new socialist bloc: condemning Stalinism (considered an aberration and denouncing its crimes), fewer purges, and formulated principles of detente and peaceful coexistence between capitalism and communism. In the satellite countries, there were no reactions in Czechoslovakia and East Germany (strikes and riots), but there were in Poland and Hungary (communist reforms but still loyal to Moscow). Khrushchev's failures in experiments and economic planning were criticized and never bore fruit.

Stagnation

The CPSU deposed Khrushchev. A stage of stagnation began. Technology and production... Continue reading "Soviet Union's Transformation and the Rise of the European Union" »

La Gran Colombia

Before the birth of Venezuela as a republic, it's important to understand that it previously belonged to the Republic of Gran Colombia. There was a president and vice president for Gran Colombia. The territory was divided into the departments of Cundinamarca, Venezuela, and Quito. The capital was Bogotá. The president was Simón Bolívar, the Vice President was Francisco de Paula Santander, and José Antonio Páez was the head of the military department of Venezuela.

La Cosiata

La Cosiata was a departmental opposition that emerged in 1821. Simón Bolívar and José Antonio Páez initiated it with the specific purpose of separating Venezuela from Gran Colombia.

Bolívar's Attempts at Settlement: 1826-1827

Signs of an impending civil... Continue reading "Venezuela's Independence: From Gran Colombia to Republic" »

Power, Opposition, and Society in Late Franco Spain

The Franco Regime in the 1970s

Governments of the Late Dictatorship

Appointment of Juan Carlos de Borbón as the successor to Franco. Politicians were divided between the regime's immobilists and aperturists. The former bet on maintaining the rigid structure of the system without any reforms. Aperturists believed that remaining in power required making gestures towards the continuation of a democratic regime.

The Carrero Blanco Government

Franco ceded the post of Prime Minister to Carrero Blanco. It was the first time Franco separated the role of Head of State from Head of Government, a clear sign of his physical inability to govern. The government headed by Carrero Blanco lasted a very short time,... Continue reading "Spain Under Late Francoism: Power and Society" »

Following the First World War (1914-1918), the peace treaties signed between nations proved weak and unfair to some countries, leading to widespread discontent and a desire for revenge. The Treaty of Versailles significantly reduced the territories of Germany and Austria, including areas populated by Germans. Great ambition and rivalry arose between countries, especially those that had lost territory in the Great War.

The need to demonstrate military power to achieve a superior military and political position over other countries fueled tensions. Control and domination of certain areas were sought to exploit their natural wealth. Hitler envisioned a terrestrial version of England's maritime power.

Ethnic issues also played a significant role,... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Key Events, and Global Impact" »

The Configuration of Catalan Politics in the 19th Century

During the six democratic years, there was an awakening of national consciousness in the form of Catalan anti-centralist popular movements, stimulated by the social problems of industrialization. Until the restoration of the Bourbons, a Catalan nationalist political movement did not articulate itself.

The First Demands: Federalists and Carlists

In the 1830s and 1840s, the first anti-centralist demonstrations occurred. Protests were more related to socio-political wings. Most occurred in urban areas, linked to the claims of workers who advocated for democratic federal republicanism. We can mention the rebellions against Espartero in 1842-1843. The incidence of Carlism in the rural world... Continue reading "Catalan Political Configuration: 19th Century Demands" »