Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Spanish Second Republic

The Reformist Biennium: April 14, 1931 - 1933

On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed after the Republican nomination had been victorious in the municipal elections of the 12th in the provincial capitals and main cities. The main reason the system was in deep crisis was the Restoration, which had worsened during the reign of Alfonso XIII and the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera. The new government tried to tackle the country's problems through labor, educational, military, and agricultural reforms. The complete agreement concluded with the 1933 elections that gave the victory to the right.

The "Counter-Reformist" or Radical-CEDA Biennium: 1933-1936

The period from November 1933 to February 1936 was characterized... Continue reading "Spanish Second Republic: Bienniums and Popular Front" »

The Four Stages of World War I

The war lasted four years, though initially anticipated to be short. It can be divided into four distinct phases:

Phase 1 (1914): War of Movement

This phase began with aggressive offensive tactics aimed at a swift resolution. Germany advanced through Belgium and Luxembourg towards Paris, intending to defeat France quickly before turning its attention to Russia. However, France held strong in Alsace and Lorraine, halting the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. Russia mobilized and launched a rapid offensive.

Phase 2 (1915-1916): Trench Warfare

The conflict devolved into static trench warfare, resulting in over two million casualties with minimal territorial gains. Demoralization spread among the entrenched... Continue reading "World War I: Four Stages of the Great War" »

Imperialism: Theories and Causes

The great powers established vast empires across Oceania, Asia, and Africa. Commercial factors were significant, as they involved negotiating exports with native populations.

Theories on Imperialism

• National Interest: Colonies were considered important for military, strategic, and economic reasons, deemed necessary for national development.
• The White Man's Civilizing Mission: The perceived duty to extend the benefits of the Western world, converting and subjecting populations to white Christianity.
• Private Benefit: Certain social groups benefited from the exploitation of colonies, leading to the theory that imperialism was an instrument of oligarchy.
• Needs of Financial Capitalism: Essential for companies seeking capitalist

Item 4: Spain's History from 1868 to 1890

The Glorious Revolution and its Aftermath

After the Glorious Revolution occurred in Cadiz, where General Prim defeated the troops of Queen Elizabeth II, she was exiled to France in 1868. The courts adopted a democratic constitution and monarchy that included:

• Universal male suffrage
• Religious freedom
• The division of powers: executive, legislative, and judicial
• Party fragmentation

King Amadeo I of Savoy faced a difficult situation after the start of the war in Cuba and the Third Carlist War. He abdicated in 1873.

The First Spanish Republic

The First Republic was established with Francisco Pi y Margall as president. The country's continuing instability and the constitution that was created for the Republic did... Continue reading "Spain's History: From Revolution to Restoration 1868-1890" »

The French Revolution

The Gironde Convention

The Republic was in the hands of the Girondins, who called for universal male suffrage elections for the new National Convention. The Convention conducted a trial of King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, who were ultimately executed by guillotine. The king's death led to the formation of a coalition of European monarchies against revolutionary France.

In 1793, the Republic was in danger. Internally, counterrevolutionary riots erupted. Externally, allied armies invaded France.

The Jacobin Convention

In 1793, the Jacobins seized power and arrested the main Girondin political leaders. That same year, they promulgated a new constitution based on social democracy: popular sovereignty, universal suffrage,... Continue reading "The French Revolution and the Unification of Germany: A Concise Overview" »

Italian Fascism in Post-War Italy

The end of the Great War left Italy with serious human and economic consequences: 700,000 men died, many industries were left unused, and high foreign debt had increased inflation. For many Italians, the cost of living was increasing while wages fell, and the number of unemployed never stopped growing. Also, the peace accords were a great disappointment as the Allies agreed to surrender to Italy Trentino, Trieste, and Istria, but not Fiume and Dalmatia, as had been agreed in the Treaty of London (1915). This started to spread the idea that Italy's participation had been a hoax, and that was gaining support for irredentism. This situation led to extreme political instability: the governments of the monarchy did... Continue reading "Italian Fascism: Rise and Dictatorship After World War I" »

The Yugoslav Wars

Since 1989, there has been a historic sprint. During the Cold War, it seemed that history was frozen. Any conflict event was East/West. Nobody really knew what was happening. From the 1990s, thawing conflicts and disputes accelerated:

Yugoslav Wars:

Source: Different ethnicities and support. South Slavic Union: Birth year 1921 of the country. Yugoslavia's constituent peoples had been outside of Europe. These towns have completely different traditions, history, and political projects. World War II showed these differences. All worked with Croatian and Serbian communists and anti-occupation forces. Yugoslavia was one of the few countries nobody (neither the Allies nor the other side) tried to take territory from. Marshal Tito had... Continue reading "The Yugoslav Wars: Causes and Consequences" »

French Revolution: Key Events

Early Stages

1. The Social Injustice: The disparity between the wealthy and the peasantry.
2. Women's March on Versailles: Women protested food shortages and royal extravagance.
3. Storming of the Bastille: This event marked the start of the revolution.
4. Execution of Louis XVI: The king's execution by guillotine.
5. The Reign of Terror: A period of mass executions.

Key Assemblies

1. General Estates
2. National Assembly
3. Constituent Assembly
4. Legislative Assembly
5. Directory
6. Napoleon's Empire

Outbreak of the French Revolution

Origins of the Revolution

By 1789, France was a stratified society, with privileges held by the clergy and nobility at the expense of the rest of the population. A deep economic crisis, beginning in 1780, saw rising prices and the... Continue reading "French Revolution: A Concise History" »

Russian Opposition to World War I and the February Revolution

In 1914, only the Bolsheviks had opposed Russia's entry into the war. However, over time, contrary positions increased. With the war ongoing since 1915, liberal and socialist opposition resurfaced with force. The winter of 1916-1917 saw discontent in the army and cities multiply due to supply shortages. Amid freezing temperatures, long lines of women formed in front of nearly empty stores in search of food or coal.

In 1917, spontaneous demonstrations of protest erupted in the capital, Petrograd (St. Petersburg), especially led by women. These united strikes and the police were powerless to control the city. The government sent the army to suppress the revolt, but troops acted with... Continue reading "Russian Opposition to World War I and February Revolution" »