Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Landscape Patterns

Elements of the Earth's surface, including biotic and anthropic.

Relief

The aspect of the land area outside of biotic elements.

Oceanic Crust

Basalt, covered with water almost in its entirety.

Continental Crust

Granite, thicker, less dense, mostly out on the oceans, and continents form.

Oceanic Ridges

(Points creating crust) Alignments of volcanoes with intense volcanic activity. Fissures emit lava through cracks.

Oceanic Trenches

Areas of intense seismic activity, as this point in the oceanic crust sinks into the mantle (point of destruction of crust).

Continental Crust: Mountain Ranges

Alignments of mountains formed by folding the material or volcanic activity.

Continental Shelves

Part of the continental crust covered by the sea.

Continental

Reliefs of Argentina

To the west, the mountain area presents new and older structures in central and eastern Argentina. Youthful structures in some high altitude regions have development exceeding 6000 meters. This structure forms the Cordillera de los Andes, and its ridges and mountains are oriented in a north-south direction. To the east, the height of these elevations is decreasing. To the south of Argentina, in the Patagonian forest ecoregion, the Andes begin to lose altitude and dive under the sea east of Tierra del Fuego. Toward the center and east of the country are older masifs or plateaus that reach 2500 meters in height. These structures are much older than the Cordillera of the Andes, so their slopes are less steep. Many of these... Continue reading "Argentina's Diverse Landscapes: Reliefs, Resources, and Ecoregions" »

South American Ecosystems: Climate, Flora, and Fauna

This document details various South American ecosystems, focusing on their unique wildlife, vegetation, soil types, and climatic conditions across different regions.

National Monuments: Araucaria and Larch Forests

Between 37º and 40º South Latitude (LS), in the Andes Cordillera (AC), the Nahuelbuta Araucaria forest appears. These magnificent trees, reaching 50 meters in height and growing up to 1000 years old with a diameter of 1 to 2 meters, thrive in volcanic soils with precipitation (PP) ranging from 1500 to 4000 mm.

At 39º and 43º LS, the Larch (_Fitzroya cupressoides_) is found in both the Pelada Mountain Range and the Coastal Range (CA). It is an evergreen tree, reaching up to 50 meters... Continue reading "Chilean Patagonia: Diverse Ecosystems, Climate, and Wildlife" »

The Historical Evolution of Spanish Urban Centers

The Early Medieval and Islamic City

The appearance of the barbarians during the early Middle Ages provoked the ruralization of the population, a societal shift that extended until the entrance of the millennium.

The Islamic City (Al-Andalus)

The Islamic city was a prominent urban center during the Spanish Middle Ages. Cities under Muslim rule were able to maintain important commercial activity, which is clearly reflected in their urban layout.

• These were unplanned cities, characterized by mazes of streets and alleyways with barely open spaces.
• They featured an irregular plan, centered on a walled core where the mosque and the zoco (market) stood.

The Christian Medieval City

The commercial development... Continue reading "Spanish City Development: From Medieval Walls to Industrial Urbanism" »

Wastewater Sludge Treatment: Chemical Processes

Types of Sludge in a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

• Primary (Decanting)
• Secondary
• Mixed

Other Sludge in a WWTP

• Fats and Oils
• Separator-Flotation
• Precipitation
• Trickling Filters

Sludge Treatment Goals

• Decrease water content
• Removal of organic matter to the solid phase for easy evacuation from the WWTP

Treatments Used

• Thickening

  • Gravity
  • Flotation

• Stabilization

  • Biological
  • Chemical

• Dehydration

  • Centrifugation
  • Filtration

Thickening Objectives

Reducing the volume of water to be treated in subsequent treatments.

Stabilization Objectives

Elimination of biodegradable organic matter present in the sludge, so that no subsequent decompositions generate odors at the final destination.

Dehydration Objectives

Achieving a suitable dryness... Continue reading "Wastewater Sludge & Biological Waste Treatment Methods" »

Echinoderms and Crustaceans: Morphology and Groups

Echinoderm Classes

Class Echinoidea (Sea Urchins)

Class Echinoidea: Present morphology is radially symmetrical, composed of five ambulacral rows of pores through which the ambulacral feet protrude. When the skeleton (test) is examined, these five rows of pores and the interambulacral areas are especially noticeable. Embedded in these areas is a tangle of spines, short or long, which give this group its name. These animals move and bury themselves; their tube feet also allow them to stand on flat surfaces.

Class Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumbers)

Class Holothuroidea: Commonly called sea cucumbers. They have evolved a different solution for life on the seafloor: the body becomes cylindrical and the five... Continue reading "Echinoderms and Crustaceans: Morphology, Classes and Groups" »

Demographic Concepts

Census

An official statistical document that sets the population count, collecting demographic and socioeconomic data of the residents. For example, it is realized every 5 years and finished in 6.

Concentrated Population

A population that is primarily gathered around a town and not scattered in the field. It explains how the population is divided in the territory. For example, in Mallorca, the population is concentrated.

Disseminated Population

A population where homes are primarily scattered in the field and not in urban groups. It explains how the population is divided in the territory. For example, in Ibiza, the population is disseminated.

Fertility Rate

The relationship between the number of babies born alive in a year x 1000,... Continue reading "Demographic Concepts: Population, Fertility, and Migration" »

Oxygen

Oxygen is produced by plants during photosynthesis. When environmental temperatures are sluggish, or at high temperatures, oxygen combines with substances to form an oxidizer. It is considered to participate in the activation of combustion. Oxygen is odorless, colorless, and tasteless.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. It is colorless, tasteless, odorless, and inert. It is not flammable. Nitrogen is obtained through the natural nitrogen cycle.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It is relatively inert at ambient temperatures. It is considered a fuel, and a small ignition with oxygen (O2) in the presence of free light, heat, and water vapor can occur. While it constitutes a very small percentage... Continue reading "Atmospheric Gases and Environmental Phenomena Explained" »

Plastics

Plastics are materials composed of polymers, consisting of long chains of atoms that contain carbon.

Types of Plastics

• Natural Plastics: Directly obtained from vegetable raw materials (cellulose and cellophane, latex) or animal (casein).
• Synthetic or Artificial Plastics: Made from compounds derived from petroleum, natural gas, or coal.

Industrial processing of these raw materials and compounds is called polymerization.

During the production of plastics, fillers are added (materials such as glass fiber, textile fibers, silica, paper, filler, or sawdust). Some additives (chemicals) are also incorporated.

As we have seen, properties such as elasticity, rigidity, toughness, and flexibility are specific to certain plastics.

Most plastics are not... Continue reading "Types of Plastics, Fibers, and Construction Materials" »

Urban Planning Models

Ensanche - The Hippodamic Model

Early models for expanding cities with old layouts proposed a Hippodamic growth system. In Spain, this model was used in Madrid's widening plan and in Barcelona with Cerdà's plan.

Cerdà's Plan

Cerdà's plan proposed a smaller grid than the original Hippodamic model, with a hierarchy of roads. Over time, this evolved into the Salamanca district, which became obsolete. The urban development was regulated by legislation, including the types of buildings allowed in each block, establishing a social organization among buildings.

The approach was to create courtyards within blocks. Due to their small size, these courtyards were primarily for ventilation and suffered from scale issues over time. The... Continue reading "Urban Planning Models: Ensanche & Linear City" »