Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Equatorial Climate

Location

• Amazon Basin
• Congo Basin
• Indonesia

Temperature

High temperatures, around 25°C year-round. Hot weather.

Temperature Range

Low thermal amplitude, less than 3°C difference.

Rainfall

High and regular precipitation, more than 2000 mm per year.

Vegetation

Rainforest.

Dry Tropical / Monsoon Climate

Location

• Central Africa
• India
• Central America
• Areas surrounding the Equatorial climate zone

Temperature

High temperatures, greater than 20°C year-round. Hot weather.

Temperature Range

Small thermal amplitude, between 3°C and 10°C.

Rainfall

Irregular precipitation with two distinct seasons: a wet summer and a dry winter. High annual rainfall, typically 1000 mm to over 2000 mm.

Vegetation

Tropical Gallery Forest, Savanna.

Warm Desert Climate

Location

• Sahara

Wind Dynamics: Key Factors

The Pressure Force

The wind that originates and is called gradient wind. Wind speed is directly proportional to the pressure difference between points.

The Coriolis Force

This force is a result of the Earth's rotation. A mass of air originating from the north, through inertia, retains its direction and speed along the meridian. However, an observer in the Northern Hemisphere, moving with Earth's rotation, will find this air mass increasingly deflecting to the right of its original direction. Conversely, in the Southern Hemisphere, the deflection is to the left. This phenomenon is the effect of the Coriolis force.

The Friction Force

Air masses close to the ground constantly experience friction from the Earth's surface. The... Continue reading "Wind Dynamics: Forces and Measurement Techniques" »

Prevention

Acting on the Source

• Appropriate facility design
• Siding with cabins or curtains
• Partial machine isolation
• Screens and faders
• Regular monitoring of transmission area and radiation intensity

Action on the Environment

• Anti-reflective wall coatings
• Control of temperature, humidity, and ventilation
• Avoid concentrating multiple sources in one environment
• Delineation and marking of danger areas

Acting on Work Organization

• Reduce exposure time based on danger level
• Authorize access only to permitted personnel

Acting on People

• Inform and educate workers
• Use appropriate safeguards (e.g., goggles, absorbent clothing)
• Risk-based health screenings

Workplace Radon, Thoron, and Radiation Exposure

• Underground mines and tourist caves
• Spas and indoor pools
• Tunnels and

Vital Functions of Living Beings

Nutrition

The function by which living beings utilize food substances to produce energy.

Relation

The function by which all living beings relate to the environment and respond to stimuli.

Reproduction

The function by which every living being is capable of producing similar beings.

Chemical Composition of Living Beings

Bioelements

These are the chemical elements that form part of living beings.

Classification by Abundance

They are preferentially classified as:

• Fundamental Bioelements
• Secondary Bioelements
• Trace Elements (Oligoelements)

Biomolecules

These are the molecules that form part of living beings. They can be:

• Organic: Large molecules characterized by long chains of carbon atoms.
• Inorganic: Small molecules that do not contain

Rousseau's Philosophy: Natural vs. Historical Man

The Noble Savage and Original Innocence

Jean-Jacques Rousseau posited a radical opposition to Thomas Hobbes' view, asserting that "Man is born good and happy." He believed that primitive man was driven by two basic impulses: self-love (amor de soi) and compassion. In this natural state, man is a generous being, innocent as a child, akin to a "noble savage."

The Degeneration of Historical Man

However, Rousseau argued that man has become something quite opposite to his original state. His contemporary, the "historical man," has lost his original innocence. His sincerity has degenerated into hypocrisy. Historical man is depicted as a vile, selfish, depraved being, full of hate.

This historical man cannot... Continue reading "Rousseau's Philosophy: Man, Society, and the Mind's Ideas" »

Fixism: A Rejected Theory

Fixism is a belief that maintains existing species have remained unchanged since their creation. It is rejected as an explanation for the origin of species because it cannot answer questions such as:

• The existence of huge variability among individuals of the same species.
• The existence of fossils.
• The presence of vestigial organs.
• The similarities in internal organs of species that are very different.
• The fact that an individual's ontogeny reflects its phylogeny.

Natural and Artificial Selection

Natural selection states that descendants survive whose changes pose an advantage in adapting to the environment, and they may transmit those changes to their descendants. Artificial selection is a process where humans select different... Continue reading "Understanding Biological Evolution: Fixism, Natural Selection, and Paleontology" »

Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, and 1% argon, CO2, neon, helium, ozone, dust, and water vapor.

• Troposphere: The layer in contact with the ground, between 10 and 11 km high. It is responsible for the greenhouse effect and meteorological phenomena. The temperature decreases with height.
• Stratosphere: Extends to 45 km altitude. Its temperature increases with height. The ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, is located here.
• Mesosphere: Extends to approximately 80 km in height. This is where meteorites falling to Earth become incandescent and turn into shooting stars.
• Thermosphere: This layer reaches 500 km in height and contains ionized gases.
• Exosphere:

Marxism

Marxism is a philosophy with a close relationship to science. Unlike speculative philosophies following the Platonic tradition, it is politically implemented. It is also a materialist philosophy, a dialectical materialism, which conceives matter not as inert and determined by mechanical laws, but as something dynamic and evolving, with its own internal contradictions as the driving force. Founded by Karl Marx, its study concerns the historical evolution of human societies, emphasizing historical materialism, which focuses on the various modes of production societies use to create their material existence. Historical development is linked to the ideologies and policies of socialism and communism. Its influence on the Frankfurt School... Continue reading "Understanding Marxism, Nihilism, Phenomenology, and Existentialism" »

Fundamental Earth Science Terminology

Map Scale

The relationship between a measured length on a map and the corresponding length in reality.

Topographical Map

A type of base map representing the physical and human aspects of an area, making them more prominent.

Solstice

A time in Earth's orbit when the Sun is perpendicular to the Tropics.

Equinox

A time in Earth's orbit when the Sun is perpendicular to the Equator.

Meseta

A very large, flat surface elevated above sea level.

Socket

Paleozoic platform rocks forming the basis of the relief.

Cordillera (or highlight skiing)

A high-elevation mountain range that emerged during the Tertiary Orogeny.

Sedimentary Basin (or depression)

A depressed zone formed during the Tertiary period and filled with sediments.

Relief

Atlantic Spain (Euro-Siberian)

Characterized by wet weather and mild temperatures, this region is home to deciduous forests. These forests feature tall trees with large leaves, requiring ample water. While there are relatively few species, hardwood forests have large populations. In mountainous areas, coniferous forests dominate. The highest points of the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountain range feature alpine meadows, as the altitude and snow prevent tree growth.

Mediterranean Spain

This region endures arid months. It is characterized by evergreen forests with small trees, low branches, and sparse growth. Oaks are found in more humid areas, while scrubland dominates the driest places. It's important to note that pine forests are often a... Continue reading "Vegetation Zones in Spain: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Macaronesian" »