Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Atmosphere is the gaseous layer that surrounds Earth. Its average weight is approximately 5.15 x 10¹⁸ kg (about 5.7 trillion tons).

Properties of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere exhibits various properties, both chemical and physical:

• Chemical Properties:
  • Oxidation
  • Reduction
• Physical Properties:
  • Mobility: Characterized by constant movement.
  • Compressibility: Atmospheric pressure changes with respect to density and temperature. Pressure generally decreases with increasing height and increases with decreasing height.
  • Expandability: Air expands as pressure decreases.
  • Transparency: It is colorless and odorless.
  • Diathermancy: It is transparent to solar radiation.
  • Shape: It conforms to the shape of the Earth.

The atmosphere is composed of gases and vapors, categorized... Continue reading "Earth's Atmosphere: Layers, Properties, and Solar Interactions" »

Greenhouse Gases and Earth's Climate

Greenhouse gases allow transparent solar radiation to pass through, but they are opaque to infrared radiation emitted by our planet.

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect raises the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth's surface. This is due to the difficulty of heat dissipation, caused by the presence of carbon oxides from industrial combustion. Is it harmful to life on Earth?

Origin of the Wind

Winds are caused by the Earth's rotation and differences in solar radiation, mainly longwave radiation, which is absorbed indirectly through the atmosphere.

Earth's Surface and Water

The presence of an atmosphere with greenhouse gases prevents the freezing of the hydrosphere.

Dynamic System: Atmosphere and

Urban Landscape and Internal Structure

The urban landscape can be analyzed through three fundamental components:

• The Plan: This is the most stable and persistent element of urban morphology, reflecting the influence of physical geography and historical stages. It comprises the road network and built-up areas.
• The Building: This encompasses different types of construction, varying in size and the arrangement of buildings, such as closed building blocks, open building blocks, or houses with gardens.
• Land Use: Highly conditioned by economic processes, land use is the component that varies most easily. It accommodates various urban economic functions and activities.

To analyze the evolution of each city, one should consider geographic factors of location... Continue reading "Understanding City Structure: Components and Urban Zones" »

Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pennsylvania

Author: Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959)

Building Name: Kaufmann House (Fallingwater)

Background: 1935-1937

Location: Bear Run, Pennsylvania, USA

Style: Organic

Architectural Details and Construction

• Basic Construction Materials: Concrete, natural stone, glass, and aluminum
• Construction System: Utilizes industrial materials

Nestled in a lush valley, Fallingwater is dramatically positioned over a stream and waterfall. It seamlessly blends with its surroundings, forming a unified whole with nature. This iconic structure is a prime example of organic architecture.

Wright integrated the existing rocks in situ, using them as the natural foundation for the residence. Stone walls and concrete columns provide structural support.... Continue reading "Fallingwater: Frank Lloyd Wright's Organic Masterpiece" »

Observing the Cosmos

Astronomers use telescopes to observe space. Optical telescopes capture light from stars or reflect light and magnify images. With radio telescopes, radiation emitted by galaxies, stars, and planets is captured. But the Earth's atmosphere blurs and obscures the image. As a result, many astronomical observatories are usually placed on mountain tops to minimize atmospheric interference.

Space Travel and Vehicles

To escape Earth's enormous gravitational pull, the power of a rocket is needed, launched from launch pads.

Rocket Launches

The first satellite launched was Sputnik 1 in 1957, followed by the first manned spacecraft, Vostok 1, in 1961. Currently, rockets like the Ariane place payloads such as:

• Manned spacecraft
• Space probes
• Satellites
• Space

Noucentisme: Catalan Cultural Movement (1906–1923)

Defining Noucentisme: Origins and Ideology

Noucentisme is a cultural movement in Catalonia that began around 1906 (coinciding with the creation of Solidaritat Catalana) and concluded in 1923 with the coup d'état of Primo de Rivera. It was conceived as a moderate response to the proposals promoted by Modernism.

The name Noucentisme first appeared in the verses of Eugeni d'Ors, who is considered its founder and main ideologue. The term "Nou" (New) signifies the opposite of the old, marking the start of a new century with proposals for change that break with the past.

Unlike the Modernists, Noucentisme sought to materialize the combination of culture and politics. The Catalan bourgeoisie and the... Continue reading "The Cultural Renaissance of Noucentisme in Catalonia (1906–1923)" »

A natural hazard is the probability that a small or large population in an area suffers damage or a catastrophe as a result of natural processes.

Factors:

• Hazard Probability: Probability of occurrence in a geographical area at a determined time. Depends on geographical areas of distributions of certain natural phenomena.
• Geographic Area Affected: Recurrence interval or return period.
• Degree of Danger: Characteristics of the phenomenon and intensity of interference.
• Vulnerability: Total human and material assets exposed to risk factors, such as population density and the economic value of assets exposed.
• Harm: The percentage of human life or property exposed that can be affected by a natural phenomenon.

Factors Influencing Harm:

• Existence of prevention

Environmental Impact Definition

Alteration that introduces a human activity into its environment.

Concept of Environment

Part of the environment that interacts with the activity.

Types of Environmental Impact

Environmental impacts are generally classified into five categories:

1. Impacts of Overexploitation.
2. Impacts of occupation, processing of space, and/or change in land use.
3. Impacts of pollution.
4. Impacts derived from the decline or absence of activity.
5. Positive impacts.

Impacts of Overexploitation

Renewable Natural Resources

Includes the use of groundwater, surface water, timber extraction, fishing, and hunting.

Extraction of Non-Renewable Natural Resources

Extraction at a rate such that the resources may be exhausted before the emergence of a substitute,... Continue reading "Classification and Assessment of Environmental Impacts" »

Stars: Celestial Powerhouses

Stars are celestial bodies formed from large amounts of hydrogen and helium atoms. Internal nuclear reactions cause the emission of a large amount of energy. Stars reach very high temperatures and produce fusion reactions that release energy. A fusion reaction involves two hydrogen atoms and one helium atom.

Types of Stars

• Blue-white
• Yellow
• Orange
• Red

Stars are formed from nebulae. They broadcast particles via the Doppler effect. Light and sound propagate as waves. If the issuing body moves, the waves arrive at the receptor more compressed or more elongated as they move away or closer.

Galaxies: Islands of Stars

Galaxies are huge groups of stars, gas, and dust. They have different shapes and sizes, and the number of stars... Continue reading "Stars, Galaxies, and Celestial Objects: A Deep Dive" »

Earth's Continents and Oceans

The continents are large landmasses on Earth's surface. The main continents are:

• Asia
• North America
• South America
• Europe
• Oceania
• Africa
• Antarctica

Oceans are large bodies of salt water. The major oceans are:

• Pacific Ocean
• Indian Ocean
• Atlantic Ocean
• Arctic Ocean

Major Landforms

The land surface is neither smooth nor uniform. Various landforms shape the terrain.

Mountains

High elevations of terrain. If a grouping is of little extension, it constitutes a range, and if it is of great extension, a cordillera.

Plains

Large tracts of land that are flat or slightly wavy.

Plateaus

Large areas of land with a flat upper surface, often elevated.

Valleys

Sunken areas of land, often elongated, surrounded by highlands.

River Systems and Features

Flow