Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Avant-Garde: A Revolution in Art and Culture

The avant-garde is a heterogeneous movement that emerged in the late 19th century, seeking to break with established social and cultural heritage. Its characteristic movements, particularly in the second half of the avant-garde period, are often referred to as '-isms'.

Key Avant-Garde Movements

• Cubism

  An artistic movement developed between 1907 and 1914, influenced by Cézanne and African and Polynesian art. It evolved through three main periods:

  1. Cézannian Period (1907-1909): Characterized by a tendency towards geometricized construction and reconstruction of reality, or a simplified approach.
  2. Analytical Period (1910-1912): Objects underwent a process of decomposition to establish dynamic rhythms.

Atmosphere: Layers and Properties

The atmosphere is a gaseous and tiered layer with vertical physical properties surrounding our planet. It extends super above 1000km.

Troposphere

The troposphere extends up to 13km and contains 75% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Most atmospheric phenomena occur here, with abundant vertical flows. The lower troposphere is followed by the tropopause, a transition layer where jet streams flow, influencing weather patterns. The location and intensity of these systems change with time and latitude.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere spans from 13 to 50km. In Caracas, the isotherm is practically at its lowest point, around -40°C. This layer contains ozone (O3), which absorbs UV radiation and heats the air.

Mesosphere

The... Continue reading "Atmospheric Layers: Properties, Pressure, and Weather Variables" »

Cosmology and Planetary Science

The Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang Theory states that the universe was created from an explosion. Space, matter, and energy were concentrated into a point called the primeval atom, which had very high densities. This atom expanded in a big explosion, initiating the universe's expansion. Energy moved away and transformed into matter, forming subatomic particles and later atoms of hydrogen and helium. This disseminated material condensed across all dimensions, and astronomical structures emerged: nebulae, galaxies, stars, and planets.

Planets of Our Solar System

Mercury

Characterized by many craters, large and numerous lava plains, elongated escarpments, and straight features.

Venus

Its atmosphere is composed of a great... Continue reading "Cosmic Origins, Earth's Forces, and Human Evolution" »

Creationism vs. Evolution: Key Concepts

Creationism: A religious belief according to which the cosmos, universe, and all living beings were created by a divine creator. Creationism was widely accepted until the late 19th century and still has followers today.

Evolution: The theory that species constantly change, giving rise to new species. Current species are the result of the evolution of previous ones.

Key Principles of Evolution

• Variability of Species: Individuals within a species are not identical but show variations that are transmitted to their offspring.
• Natural Selection: As populations increase, resources become limited, leading to competition. Individuals better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully, while

Natural Vegetation in Spain: Diversity and Landscapes

Factors Influencing Spain's Vegetation Diversity

The rich diversity of natural vegetation in Spain is shaped by a combination of physical and human factors.

Physical Factors

These include the varied climate, diverse relief, and different soil types across the peninsula. Spain's unique geographical location, acting as a bridge between continents, also plays a significant role in its ecological complexity.

Human Factors

Human activities, such as the introduction of species for their economic value or the degradation of existing ecosystems, also contribute to the current state of Spain's vegetation.

Biogeographical Regions of Vegetation

The Iberian Peninsula is part of the Holarctic Kingdom, which... Continue reading "Spain's Diverse Vegetation: Climates, Regions, and Landscapes" »

Proc. Geologic: Transformation

Proc. Geologic: Transformation of objects, including solar and gravel differences.

Weathering: Rock Decomposition

Weathering: The decomposition of rocks and ores, such as granite gravel, due to factors like decompression.

Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical Weathering: Processes like decompression, geifracción (rock fracturing due to ice in Remera Mon Lacco), and temperature changes (dilation and contraction) and plant roots.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical Weathering: Includes hydrolysis, decarbonation, hydration, and oxidation.

Slope Phenomena

Slope Phenomena: Gravity's impact on materials along slopes, influenced by water as a lubricant.

• Falls: Detachment with partial displacement from the upper interface (cliff slopes and

Theories Orogeniques: 2 groups:

Theories Orogeniques Fixistes: Mountain chain formation is due to vertical terrestrial crustal efforts. Important:

• Theory of Undations: Mountain chain formation due to the emergence of a magmatic mass.
• Oceanization Theory: Basic theory suggesting that masses of magma invaded an area of continental crust.
• Geosynclinal Theory: Existence of a deep sedimentary basin in which large quantities of sediment accumulate, provoking the subsidence of the sedimentary basin.

Theories Orogeniques Mobilistes: Modern theories, utilizing recent advances.

• Theory of Continental Drift: (Alfred Wegener) The cause of the phenomena is due to orogenic compressive horizontal efforts of the terrestrial crust.
• Tectonic Plate Theory: Orogenic phenomena

Catalan Coastal Mountain Range

The Catalan Coastal Mountain Range extends from the Pyrenees to the Ebro Delta, in a northeast-southwest direction. The sector with siliceous material is formed by the rest of the Catalan-Balearic solid. The southern sector includes Montseny. The sector with calcareous materials includes the mountains of Montserrat and Montsant.

Ebro Depression

The Ebro Depression, with a northwest-southeast direction, originates in the Cantabrian Mountains. However, it mainly flows through the Pyrenees and the Iberian System, leading to the Catalan Coastal System in the northeast and forming the main delta of the peninsula. The relief of the depression is derived from eroded material from the surrounding mountains. In turn, erosion... Continue reading "Catalonia and Andalusia: Geography and Relief of Key Regions" »

Solar Radiation and Its Impact on Earth

The energy produced in the interior of the Sun is emitted in all directions into space. This is solar radiation. The closer a planet is to the Sun, the greater the quantity of energy it receives.

Earth's Atmospheric Layers

• Troposphere: The lowest layer. It contains most of the atmospheric gases. Clouds and all meteorological processes occur in this layer.
• Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet rays.
• Ionosphere: A thin layer (up to 600km).
• Exosphere: Gradually transitions into outer space; there is no sudden change.

Albedo and Absorption

Albedo is the portion of solar energy that is immediately reflected back into space and does not heat the Earth's surface. Another part of the solar... Continue reading "Solar Radiation and Earth's Climate: Key Factors" »

Siliceous Rock Areas

Siliceous rock areas are found in the Precambrian era rocks of the western Iberian Peninsula (Galicia, León, Extremadura), with ramifications towards the western Cantabrian Dorsal, the Central System, the Montes de Toledo, and some areas in the Pyrenees Axial Zone, Iberian System, and the Penibetic coastal range. Rock types include quartzite and granite.

Limestone Karst Regions

Limestone sediments, folded during the Tertiary period, form an inverted 'Z' shape that extends through the Pre-Pyrenees, Basque Mountains, eastern Cantabrian Dorsal, part of the Iberian System, the Catalan Coastal Range, and the Subbetic limestone areas. This rock type is a fractured hard rock where water dissolves crevices, forming karstic relief.... Continue reading "Iberian Peninsula Geology: Rocks and Relief" »