Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

Characteristics of Spanish River Systems

Atlantic and Mediterranean River Features

Unlike the distinct characteristics of Atlantic and Mediterranean currents, Spanish rivers exhibit unique hydrological patterns:

Atlantic Rivers

• Rivers crossing the Meseta are long.
• Cantabrian and Galician rivers are short and irregular, with very intense dry periods in summer and sometimes in winter.
• The most abundant flows occur in autumn and spring, which are also the times when high water levels concentrate.

Mediterranean Rivers

• Generally short rivers with low streamflow, except for the Ebro.
• Irregular, with intense dry periods and large floods caused by heavy rainfall in spring and autumn.
• Often ephemeral streams or wadis, characterized by channels where water flows

Understanding the Biosphere

The set of all living beings that inhabit the Earth is known as the biosphere. Currently, there are approximately 2 million species. An ecosystem is defined as all living beings that inhabit a specific place, where relationships are established between them and the physical environment they live in, along with the site characteristics and relationships between the environment and organisms.

Types of Ecosystems

There are several types of ecosystems:

• Aquatic Ecosystems: Rivers, ponds
• Terrestrial Ecosystems: Deserts, forests

The Ecosphere

The ecosphere is the set of all the ecosystems of our planet. The biosphere is the living part of the food ecosystem, where living beings perform vital functions. All living things need energy,... Continue reading "Understanding the Biosphere and Ecosystems on Earth" »

Freshwater: Rivers and Lakes

Physical Elements of the River Regime

1. Climate

The greatest precipitation occurs in the North, i.e., the oceanic climate of Spain. This results in the largest relative flow and the greater regularity of the rivers located in humid Spain, which occupies only 20% of the mainland.

2. Relief

Relief influences the size of the watersheds. In mountainous areas, watersheds are small and compartmentalized. Consequently, rivers in mountainous areas have little absolute flow. The relief influences the erosive capacity of rivers, which is related to the slope. It also influences decisions on whether or not to build hydraulic structures.

3. Ground

If the bedrock is waterproof (granite, clay, shale), much of the precipitation joins... Continue reading "Freshwater Ecosystems: Rivers and Lakes in Spain" »

Climatological Factors

Solar Radiation and Temperature

Temperature is the degree of heat in the atmosphere, originating from solar radiation. It is measured with a thermometer.

The caloric power of land radiation influences temperature.

Earth's Movements and Temperature Variation

• Rotation: Causes the day/night cycle, leading to daily temperature variations.
• Translation: Earth's orbit around the sun causes seasonal temperature variations.

Temperature is generally lower at higher altitudes due to decreased atmospheric mass and pressure.

Latitude

At higher latitudes, temperature is lower because less solar radiation is incident due to greater obliquity, leading to more caloric power loss.

Proximity to the Sea

Sea moisture moderates thermal amplitudes (differences... Continue reading "Geographical Fundamentals: Climate, Winds, and Population Dynamics" »

Fe-C Alloys: Alloy Elements

• Mn <1.6%: Descaling and desulfurization. Increases tensile strength (Re), ultimate tensile strength (Rm), fatigue resistance, and wear resistance. Decreases machinability.
• P <0.04%: Increases Re, Rm, wear resistance, and machinability. Decreases resilience.
• S <0.04%: Harmful in steels. Increases machinability and hardness, decreases elongation, resilience, and Re.
• Si <0.50%: Deoxidation, increasing Re, Rm, hardness, and wear resistance. Decreases machinability, resilience, and forgeability.

Influence of Alloy Elements

1. Mechanical Properties: Strengthening through training sequence and carbide precipitation.
2. Hardenability improvement.
3. Eutectoid temperature shifted downward, and less with higher %C alloy.
4. Grain Size:

Territorial Planning (PAT)

Territorial Scope: Always supramunicipal; one comarca (district) can affect the whole or part of it. PATs develop community in specific territorial areas or within specific sectors, both as targets of the LOTPP criteria and Spatial Development of the Community of Valencia.

Types:

• A) Sectorial character
• B) Integrated, according to nature or focus on one or more sectors of public action

Classes:

1. Risk
2. Landscape
3. Seismic
4. Litoral
5. Energetic
6. Protection of land use and quality of mineral resources
7. Protection of the Valencian rural hydraulic system and the garden

General Plan (PG)

Definition: A unique management tool for a municipal term. It defines the model of urban evolution and structural urban planning for municipalities, completing... Continue reading "Territorial & Urban Planning: PAT, PG, PP, PRI, PE Explained" »

Reaction Rate Equations and Orders

The rate equation expresses the reaction rate (q) at a given instant (n) as a function of the concentrations at that moment. The constant, k, that appears in the equation is called the rate constant. The exponents, x and y, are the partial orders of the reaction with respect to the concentrations of each substance. Their sum (x + y) is called the overall reaction order.

The half-life (t_½) is the time it takes for a certain reactant's concentration to reduce to half.

Reaction Orders: Zero, First, Second, and Third

• Zero-order reactions
• First-order reactions
• Second-order reactions
• Third-order reactions

Theories of Chemical Reactions

Collision Theory: Molecular Interactions

Lewis proposed that chemical reactions occur... Continue reading "Chemical Reaction Kinetics and Catalysis Principles" »

Climate Change Impact in Asturias

A long-term global reduction in CO2 emissions by at least 50% in 2050 compared to 1990 is crucial.

Main Problems

Addressing the following challenges is essential:

• Reducing carbon emissions from developed countries.
• Promoting economic growth without harming the environment.
• Fostering cooperation to help developing countries.

Climate Change in Asturias: An Introduction

The Earth is interconnected, and changes in one area affect the whole. Climate change is worsening globally and is increasingly evident in Asturias. Adapting to these changes will require modifications to public works on the coast to address marine phenomena that exceed current artificial barriers, especially in eastern Asturias.

Effects of Climate Change

Warmer

**Chlorophyll Function**

Chlorophyll function: The process by which plants absorb CO2 for subsequent decomposition; oxygen is released by this means.

**Starch**

Starch: A polysaccharide like starch that is in seeds, tubers, and roots used by plants. It is used primarily in the food industry in the elaboration of flour.

**Taro**

Taro: A tropical plant used as a vegetable for its corm. It is also edible as a vegetable, but it is indigestible when raw due to substances in the ergastic cells of the plant. It grows where there is a lot of water.

**Corm**

Corm: A thickened underground stem with a swollen base and vertical growth. It contains nodes and bulges where the buds come out, and it is covered by layers of leaves.

**Cassava**

A perennial shrub, Cassava,... Continue reading "Understanding Essential Plant Processes and Food Crops" »

Understanding Deixis, Coherence, and Cohesion

Personal Deixis: I, we, you, he, him, them

Spatial Deixis: here, in, on, off, below, to there

Temporal Deixis: today, yesterday, tomorrow, then, at that time, before, after

Coherence

Coherence means the relationship should have logic among all text parts. The ideas developed reference the same theme and are related, concluding between them.

Progression of a Constant Theme

The theme is repeated throughout the paragraphs. It appears especially in descriptive, narrative, and expository texts.

Progression of Derivative Themes

Once an issue is stated (also called a hypertheme), the rest of the themes are aspects or parts of the first type. This progression is very common in expository texts.

Progression of Linked