Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geology

The Ebro and Guadalquivir River Depressions

The Ebro Depression

The Ebro Depression is wedged between the foothills of the Pyrenees, the Iberian System, and the Catalan Coastal Range. It has a length of 380 km and a maximum width of 150 km. The Ebro River runs through this depression. The river and its tributaries form a communication network, where cities and irrigated areas are located. The Ebro flows through a passage between the Catalan Coastal Range that leads to the Mediterranean, where it forms a very extensive delta.

The Guadalquivir Depression

The Guadalquivir Depression is bordered by the Sierra Morena and the rugged Cordillera mountain ranges. This large, flat, triangular-shaped depression is about 330 km long and 200 km wide at the... Continue reading "Spain's Coastal and River Depression Relief" »

The Isabel II System Crisis (1856-1868)

The last stage was dominated by the return of the Moderate Party to power and its alternation with the Liberal Union. The Moderate Party had gained international prestige with colonial pretensions. Internally, the action of the government was very authoritarian, acting outside of the courts and exercising strong repression against political groups. Opposition to the regime was growing, and new political groups emerged, such as the Democrats, who defended universal suffrage, and the Republicans, who advocated the abolition of the monarchy.

The Revolution of 1868

The political and economic crisis triggered the first revolution against the monarchy. The Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats joined forces to... Continue reading "Spain's Political Turmoil: 1856-1898" »

Nuclear Fission Energy

Nuclear fission energy is obtained from the separation, or fission, of heavy atoms of radioactive minerals, such as uranium. This energy source was learned about during the Second World War, following the dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since then, it began to be used for peaceful purposes and its use became widespread following the oil crisis of 1973. The main producing countries are the USA, France, and Japan.

Hydropower

Hydropower is obtained from water dammed by a barrier in artificial watercourses. Its moderate use dates back to the early twentieth century. The main producing countries are Canada, the USA, Brazil, and China.

Alternative Energy Sources

Alternative energy sources... Continue reading "Nuclear Fission, Hydropower, and Alternative Energy" »

La Maison Carrée: Roman Temple in Nîmes

La Maison Carrée is a well-preserved ancient Roman temple located in the French city of Nîmes, dedicated to the Imperial Cult and dating from approximately 16 BC. The structure is rectangular with a gabled roof.

Architectural Features

Like a typical Roman temple, it stands on a large podium, with a single, central staircase at the front, originally facing the forum. Along its sides, the columns are engaged (set into the wall) of the cella (the inner chamber housing the cult image in Greco-Roman temples). The building is hexastyle (featuring six columns across the front porch) and pseudoperipteral (meaning the side and rear columns are engaged with the cella walls rather than forming a freestanding colonnade)... Continue reading "Maison Carrée in Nîmes & Rome's Colosseum Explained" »

Plains and the Ebro Valley

In the late primary period, along with Catalonia, a sea paneled. In the secondary period, there was much sedimentation. The Pyrenean stage lifted the edges, especially to the north (Pyrenees), which became a gulf, and a rise in the lake's eastern hills occurred in the Miocene epoch. In the Quaternary period, it emptied through a crack in the Mastership.

Levante Coastal Formations

Low cost of sea and river silting.

Guadalquivir Valley Formation

Similar to the Ebro Valley in form and unifying factors. The primary mountains rose in the secondary area, which was covered with water in the Betic tertiary period. The tilting of the peninsula emptied the area on the Gulf of Cadiz, where the contributions of the river converge,... Continue reading "Geological Formations: Plains, Valleys, and Mountain Ranges" »

Cen Tralles Hydroelectric and the Environment: Advantages

The atmosphere does not emit particulate pollutants, and the waste generated is minimal. Each kilowatt-hour produced avoids the emission of 1 kg of carbon dioxide (CO2), 7 g of sulfur oxides (SOx), and 3 g of nitrogen oxides (NOx). The regulatory minimum flow is crucial in drought conditions; water can be used to provide for the consumption of local populations.

Disadvantages: Loss of fertile lands and villages that are submerged, leading to significant problems for the inhabitants. Alteration of river flow and erosion issues, modification of vegetation and fauna, and possible accumulation of organic matter caused by sewage spills can deteriorate water quality and may even release gases... Continue reading "Cen Tralles Hydroelectric Impact on Environment and Energy" »

Natural Resources in Catalonia

Natural resources are goods from nature that society uses to meet human needs. Key resources include:

• Mineral Resources: Catalonia is relatively poor in minerals like coal, oil, and potassium salt.
• Industrial Rocks: Good production of materials such as sand and rocks for construction (bricks, tiles, etc.).
• Soil: Vulnerable to destruction, used for biomass production and forage. It plays a crucial role in water infiltration, regulating the hydrological regime, and providing habitat for wildlife.
• Vegetation: Forest stands exhibit significant variation and are an important ecological and scenic resource. Few mature forests remain; those that are exploited still possess valuable flora and fauna.
• Water (L'aigua): An indispensable

Energy Inside the Earth

Temperature in the Earth's Interior

Although the surface is cold, scientists have calculated that at 2000 km depth, the temperature exceeds 2500 °C, and in the Earth's core at 6300 km, it is about 4500 °C.

Consequences of Heat Loss

The Earth radiates heat outwards as magma. Magma is formed by molten rock found at high temperatures. When it reaches the surface, it forms volcanoes.

Volcanoes

What are Volcanoes?

Volcanoes form when magma rises to the surface. During eruptions, explosions occur, which expel gas from the magma.

Materials Emitted by Volcanoes

In eruptions, volcanoes emit:

• GASES: Help the lava escape.
• LAVAS: Liquid rock ejected by volcanoes.
• Pyroclastic materials: These are classified as: bombs (reaching up to 30 cm)

Weather: Refers to the various phenomena occurring in the atmosphere of Earth or another planet.

Climate: Represents the set of mean values of weather conditions that characterize a region. These average values are obtained by collecting weather information over a sufficiently long period.

When discussing the world, an area or region, or a particular locality, we refer to global climate, zonal, regional, or local climate (microclimate), respectively.

Factors Modifying Climate

• Latitude: The angular distance between the Equator and a point on the planet. Latitude is measured in degrees (°), between 0 and 90, and can be represented as positive (North) or negative (South).
• Altitude: The vertical distance from a given origin, typically the average sea

Internal Structure of the Earth

• Continental Crust
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity
• Upper Mantle
• Transition Zone
• Lower Mantle
• Outer Core
• Inner Core

Soil Layers and Composition

• Core: Nickel and Iron
• Mesosphere: Silicon, Iron, and Magnesium
• Crust: Silicon and Magnesium

Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Formed from melted minerals, typically found in the Earth's core. They have an inlaid and laminated glass appearance. Examples include granite and sharpening stone.

Sedimentary Rocks

Formed at the bottom of lakes and oceans. They appear as a mass of different substances in layers. An example is gypsum.

Metamorphic Rocks

Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks due to changes in temperature and humidity. They appear as attached blades that separate easily. Examples include slate and marble.... Continue reading "Earth's Internal Structure, Rocks, and Soil Composition" »